Exploring Writing: Paragraphs and Essays

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Table of Contents:
EXPLORING WRITING: PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS, 3/e By John Langan TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE xxii PART ONE: WRITING: SKILLS AND PROCESS 2 1. An Introduction to Writing 4 Point and Support 5 An Important Difference between Writing and Talking 5 Point and Support in a Paragraph 6 Knowing Your Purpose and Audience 8 Benefits of Paragraph Writing 9 Writing as a Skill 9 Writing as a Process of Discovery 11 Keeping a Journal 12 Tips on Using a Computer 14 Ways to Use a Computer at Each Stage of the Writing Process 15 2. The Writing Process 19 Prewriting 20 Technique 1: Freewriting 20 Technique 2: Questioning 23 Technique 3: Making a List 24 Technique 4: Clustering 26 Technique 5: Preparing a Scratch Outline 27 Writing a First Draft 28 Writing a First Draft: A Student Model 29 Revising 30 Revising Content 31 Revising Sentences 31 Editing 31 An Illustration of the Revising and Editing Processes 32 Using Peer Review 34 Identification 35 Scratch Outline 35 Comments 35 Review Activities 36 Taking a Writing Inventory 36 Prewriting 38 Outlining 40 Revising 46 PART TWO: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING 52 3. The First and Second Steps in Writing 54 Step 1: Begin with a Point 55 Identifying Common Errors in Topic Sentences 57 Understanding the Two Parts of a Topic Sentence 59 Selecting a Topic Sentence 61 Writing a Topic Sentence I 62 Writing a Topic Sentence II 64 Step 2: Support the Point with Specific Evidence 65 The Point as an “Umbrella” Idea 66 Reinforcing Point and Support 68 The Importance of Specific Details 71 Recognizing Specific Details 71 Providing Supporting Evidence 74 The Importance of Adequate Details 75 Identifying Adequate Supporting Evidence 77 Adding Details to Complete a Paragraph 80 Writing a Paragraph 81 4. The Third and Fourth Steps in Writing 84 Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 85 Common Methods of Organization: Time Order and Emphatic Order 85 Transitions 90 Other Connecting Words 96 Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 99 Revising Sentences 99 Editing Sentences 117 5. Four Bases for Revising Writing 120 Base 1: Unity 121 Understanding Unity 121 Checking for Unity 123 Base 2: Support 127 Understanding Support 127 Checking for Support 128 Base 3: Coherence 130 Understanding Coherence 130 Checking for Coherence 132 Base 4: Sentence Skills 136 Understanding Sentence Skills 136 Checking for Sentence Skills 139 Evaluating Paragraphs for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 140 PART THREE: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT 146 6. Exemplification 148 Paragraphs to Consider 149 Developing an Exemplification Paragraph 151 Development through Prewriting 151 Development through Revising 153 Writing an Exemplification Paragraph 153 7. Narration 159 Paragraphs to Consider 160 Developing a Narrative Paragraph 162 Development through Prewriting 162 Development through Revising 163 Writing a Narrative Paragraph 164 8. Description 168 Paragraphs to Consider 169 Developing a Descriptive Paragraph 171 Development through Prewriting 171 Development through Revising 173 Writing a Descriptive Paragraph 173 9. Process 179 Paragraphs to Consider 180 Developing a Process Paragraph 182 Development through Prewriting 182 Development through Revising 184 Writing a Process Paragraph 184 10. Cause and Effect 189 Paragraphs to Consider 190 Developing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 191 Development through Prewriting 191 Development through Revising 193 Writing a Cause-and-Effect Paragraph 193 11. Comparison or Contrast 198 Paragraphs to Consider 199 Methods of Development 200 One Side at a Time 200 Point by Point 201 Additional Paragraph to Consider 204 Developing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 205 Development through Prewriting 205 Development through Revising 207 Writing a Comparison or Contrast Paragraph 208 12. Definition 212 Paragraphs to Consider 213 Developing a Definition Paragraph 215 Development through Prewriting 215 Development through Revising 217 Writing a Definition Paragraph 217 13. Division-Classification 222 Paragraphs to Consider 223 Developing a Division-Classification Paragraph 226 Development through Prewriting 226 Development through Revising 228 Writing a Division-Classification Paragraph 229 Argument 233 Strategies for Arguments 234 Use Tactful, Courteous Language 234 Point Out Common Ground 235 Acknowledge Differing Viewpoints 235 When Appropriate, Grant the Merits of Differing Viewpoints 235 Rebut Differing Viewpoints 235 Paragraphs to Consider 238 Developing an Argument Paragraph 240 Development through Prewriting 240 Development through Revising 243 Writing an Argument Paragraph 244 PART FOUR: ESSAY DEVELOPMENT 252 15. Introduction to Essay Development 254 What Is an Essay? 255 Differences Between an Essay and Paragraph 255 Structure of the Traditional Essay 255 A Model Essay 255 Parts of an Essay 256 Introductory Paragraph 256 Body: Supporting Paragraphs 257 Concluding Paragraph 258 Diagram of an Essay 259 Identifying the Parts of an Essay 260 Important Considerations in Essay Development 262 Determining Your Point of View 262 Doing a Personal Review 264 16.Writing the Essay 265 Step 1: Begin with a Point, or Thesis 266 Understanding Thesis Statements 266 Writing a Good Thesis I 266 Writing a Good Thesis II 268 Step 2: Support the Thesis with Specific Evidence 273 The Importance of Specific Details 275 The Importance of Adequate Details 276 Adding Details to Complete an Essay 276 Step 3: Organize and Connect the Specific Evidence 278 Common Methods of Organization 278 Transitions 280 Other Connecting Words 283 Identifying Transitions and Other Connecting Words 283 Step 4: Write Clear, Error-Free Sentences 284 Use Active Verbs 285 Practice in Revising Sentences 286 Revising Essays for All Four Bases: Unity, Support, Coherence, and Sentence Skills 291 17. Introductions, Conclusions, and Titles 295 Introductory Paragraph 296 Functions of the Introduction 296 Common Methods of Introduction 296 Concluding Paragraph 299 Common Methods of Conclusion 299 Identifying Introductions and Conclusions 301 Titles 302 Essay Writing Assignments 304 18. Patterns of Essay Development 309 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 310 Considering Purpose and Audience 310 Student Essay to Consider 310 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Exemplification 313 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 314 Considering Purpose and Audience 315 Student Essay to Consider 315 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Narration 318 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 319 Considering Purpose and Audience 319 Student Essay to Consider 319 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Description 322 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 323 Considering Purpose and Audience 323 Student Essay to Consider 323 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Process 326 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 327 Considering Purpose and Audience 327 Student Essay to Consider 327 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Cause and/or Effect 329 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 330 Considering Purpose and Audience 330 Student Essay to Consider 331 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Comparison and/or Contrast 333 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 334 Considering Purpose and Audience 334 Student Essay to Consider 334 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Definition 337 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341 Considering Purpose and Audience 338 Student Essay to Consider 338 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Division and Classification 341 Developing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 342 Considering Purpose and Audience 342 Student Essay to Consider 342 Writing an Essay with Emphasis on Argument 345 19. Special College Skills 346 Taking Essay Exams 347 Step 1: Anticipate Ten Probable Questions 347 Step 2: Prepare and Memorize an Informal Outline Answer for Each Question 348 Step 3: Look at the Exam Carefully and Do Several Things 349 Step 4: Prepare a Brief, Informal Outline before Writing Your Essay Answer 351 Step 5: Write a Clear, Well-Organized Essay 351 Writing a Summary 353 How to Summarize an Article 354 How to Summarize a Book 362 Writing a Report 363 Part 1 of a Report: A Summary of the Work 363 Part 2 of a Report: Your Reaction to the Work 363 Points to Keep in Mind When Writing a Report 364 A Model Report 364 20. Writing a Research Paper 367 Step 1: Select a Topic That You Can Readily Research 368 Researching at a Local Library 368 Researching on the Internet 368 Step 2: Limit Your Topic and Make the Purpose of Your Paper Clear 368 Step 3: Gather Information on Your Limited Topic 369 Step 4: Plan Your Paper and Take Notes on Your Limited Topic 370 Preparing a Scratch Outline 370 Note-Taking 371 A Caution about Plagiarism 372 Step 5: Write the Paper 375 Step 6: Use an Acceptable Format and Method of Documentation 375 Format 375 Documentation of Sources 375 Citation within a Paper 376 Citations at the End of a Paper 376 Model Entries for a List of "Works Cited" 377 Model Paper 379 PART FIVE: HANDBOOK OF SENTENCE SKILLS 392 SECTION I: GRAMMAR 394 21.Subjects and Verbs 395 A Simple Way to Find a Subject 395 A Simple Way to Find a Verb 395 More about Subjects and Verbs 396 22.Sentence Sense 400 What is Sentence Sense? 400 Turning On Your Sentence Sense 400 Summary: Using Sentence Sense 402 23.Fragments 403 Dependent-Word Fragments 403 How to Correct a Depedent-Word Fragment 404 -ing and to Fragments 406 How to Correct -ing Fragments 407 How to Correct to Fragments 407 Added-Detail Fragments 409 How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 409 Missing-Subject Fragments 411 How to Correct Missing-Subject Fragments 411 24.Run-Ons 415 What are Run-Ons? 415 How to Correct Run-Ons? 416 Method 1: Period and a Capital Letter 416 Method 2: Comma and a Joining Word 417 Method 3: Semicolon 420 A Note on Subordination 422 25.Regular and Irregular Verbs 426 Regular Verbs 426 A Brief Review of Regular Verbs 426 Nonstandard Forms of Regular Verbs 426 Irregular Verbs 428 A List of Irregular Verbs 428 Nonstandard Forms of Three Common Irregular Verbs 431 26.Subject-Verb Agreement 434 Words between Subject and Verb 434 Verb before Subject 435 Compound Subjects 435 Indefinite Pronouns 436 27.Additional Information about Verbs 439 Verb Tense 439 Helping Verbs 440 Verbals 441 Infinitive 441 Participle 441 Gerund 441 28.Pronoun Agreement and Reference 443 Pronoun Agreement 443 Indefinite Pronouns 444 Pronoun Reference 445 29.Pronoun Types 448 Subject and Object Pronouns 448 Subject Pronouns 448 Object Pronouns 450 Possessive Pronouns 451 Demonstrative Pronouns 452 30.Adjectives and Adverbs 454 Adjectives 454 What are Adjectives? 454 Using Adjectives to Compare 455 Points to Remember about Comparing 455 Adverbs 456 What are Adverbs? 456 A Common Mistake with Adverbs and Adjectives 456 Well and Good 457 31.Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 459 Misplaced Modifiers 459 Dangling Modifiers 460 SECTION II: MECHANICS 469 32.Manuscript Form 470 33.Capital Letters 472 Main Uses of Capital Letters 472 First Word in a Sentence or Direct Quotation 472 Names and Titles 472 Other Uses of Capital Letters 474 Names that Show Family Relationships 474 Titles of Persons When Used with Their Names 475 Specific School Courses 475 Languages 475 Geographic Locations 475 Historical Periods and Events 475 Races, Nations, and Nationalities 476 Opening and Closing of a Letter 476 Unnecessary Use of Capitals 476 34.Numbers and Abbreviations 479 Numbers 479 Rule 1 479 Rule 2 479 Rule 3 479 Abbreviations 480 SECTION III: PUNCTUATION 484 35.Apostrophe 485 Apostrophe in Contractions 485 Apostrophe to Show Ownership or Possession 486 Points to Remember 486 Apostrophe versus Possessive Pronouns 488 Apostrophe verus Simple Plurals 488 Apostrophe with Plurals Ending in -s 489 36.Quotation Marks 491 Quotation Marks to Set Off the Words of a Speaker or Writer 491 Indirect Quotations 493 Quotation Marks to Set Off Titles of Short Works 494 Other Uses of Quotations Marks 495 37.Comma 498 Six Main Uses of the Comma 498 1. Comma between Items in a Series 498 2. Comma after Introductory Material 499 3. Comma around Words That Interrupt the Flow of Thought 500 4. Comma between Complete Thoughts 501 5. Comma with Direct Quotations 502 6. Comma with Everyday Material 503 38.Other Punctuation Marks 506 Colon (:) 506 Semicolon (;) 506 Dash (-) 507 Parentheses () 507 Hyphen (-) 508 SECTION IV: WORD USE 512 39.Spelling Improvement 513 Step 1: Use the Dictionary 513 Step 2: Keep a Personal Spelling List 513 Step 3: Master Commonly Confused Words 514 Step 4: Learn Key Words in Major Subjects 514 Step 5: Study a Basic Word List 514 Step 6: Use Electronic Aids 516 40.Commonly Confused Words 517 Homonyms 517 Other Words Frequently Confused 521 41.Effective Word Choice 526 Slang 526 Cliches 527 Inflated Words 529 42.Editing Tests 532 43.ESL Pointers 545 Articles with Count and Noncount Nouns 545 Using a or an with Nonspecific Singular Count Nouns 546 Using the with Specific Nouns 546 Omitting Articles 547 Using the with Proper Nouns 547 Subjects and Verbs 549 Avoiding Repeated Subjects 549 Including Pronoun Subjects and Linking Verbs 549 Including There and Here at the Beginning of Clauses 549 Not Using the Progressive Tense of Certain Verbs 550 Using Only Transitive Verbs for the Passive Voice 550 Using Gerunds and Infinitives after Verbs 550 Adjectives 553 Following the Order of Adjectives in English 553 Using the Present and Past Participles as Adjectives 554 Prepositions Used for Time and Place 555 PART SIX: READINGS FOR WRITERS 564 Introduction to the Readings 566 The Format of Each Selection 566 How to Read Well: Four General Steps 567 1.Concentrate as You Read 567 2.Skim Material before You Read It 567 3.Read the Selection Straight Through with a Pen in Hand 568 4.Work with the Material 568 How to Answer the Comprehension Questions: Specific Hints 569 Looking Inward 570 Shame, Dick Gregory 570 The Professor is a Dropout, Beth Johnson 576 Superman and Me, Sherman Alexie 585 Prison Studies, Malcom X 590 Straw into Gold: The Metamorphosis of the Everyday, Sandra Cisneros 595 Mother Tongue, Amy Tan 601 Observing Others 609 What's Wrong with Schools?, Casey Banas 609 Propaganda Techniques in Today's Advertising, Ann McClintock 614 This is How We Live, Ellen DeGeneres 622 Advice to Youth, Mark Twain 629 Start By Sitting Together, Randy Pausch 634 Inaugural Address, John F. Kennedy 638 Neat People vs. Sloppy People, Suzanne Brit (book excerpt) 644 Petophila, Jon Katz 649 Confronting Problems 655 How to Make It in College, Now That You’re Here, Brian O’Keeney 655 In Praise of the F Word, Mary Sherry 664 Is Sex All That Matters?, Joyce Garity 669 Cyberbullying, Thomas J. Billitteri 676 Why Profiling Won’t Work, William Raspberry 683 Here's to Your Health, Joan Dunayer 688 APPENDIX A: Writing a Resume and Cover Letter APPENDIX B: Writing a Formal E-mail 695 APPENDIX C: Transition Words and Phrases 696 CREDITS 697 INDEX 699

About the Author :
John Langan has taught reading and writing at Atlantic Cape Community College for more than 25 years. The author of a popular series of college textbooks on both writing and reading, John enjoys the challenge of developing instructive materials that are clear and lively. Before teaching, he earned advanced degrees in writing at Rutgers University and in reading at Rowan University. He also spent a year writing fiction that “is now at the back of a drawer waiting to be discovered and acclaimed posthumously.” While in school, he supported himself by working as a truck driver, a machinist, a battery assembler, a hospital attendant, and an apple packer. In addition to his wife and Philly sports teams, his passions include reading and conveying to nonreaders the pleasure and power of books. Through Townsend Press, his educational publishing company, he has developed the nonprofit “Townsend Library”—a collection of more than 100 new and classic stories that appeal to readers of any age.