The emergence of the discipline of encapsulation and controlled release has had a great impact on the food and dietary supplements sectors; principally around fortifying food systems with nutrients and health-promoting ingredients. The successful incorporation of these actives in food formulations depends on preserving their stability and bioavailability as well as masking undesirable flavors throughout processing, shelf life and consumption.
This second edition of Encapsulation and Controlled Release Technologies in Food Systems serves as an improvement and a complement companion to the first. However, it differentiates itself in two main aspects. Firstly, it introduces the reader to novel encapsulation and controlled release technologies which have not yet been addressed by any existing book on this matter, and secondly, it offers an in-depth discussion on the impact of encapsulation and controlled release technologies on the bioavailability of health ingredients and other actives. In common with the first edition the book includes chapters written by distinguished authors and researchers in their respective areas of specialization.
This book is designed as a reference for scientists and formulators in the food, nutraceuticals and consumer products industries who are looking to formulate new or existing products using microencapsulated ingredients. It is also a post-graduate text designed to provide students with an introduction to encapsulation and controlled release along with detailed coverage of various encapsulation technologies and their adaptability to specific applications.
Table of Contents:
List of contributors, xiii
Foreword, xvii
Preface to second edition, xix
Preface to first edition, xxi
1 Introduction, 1
Jamileh M. Lakkis
Wall-forming materials, 2
Core materials, 2
Release triggers, 2
Payload, 2
Current approaches to encapsulation and controlled release, 3
Entrapment in carbohydrate matrices, 3
Complexation into cyclodextrins, 6
Encapsulation in microporous matrices: physical adsorption, 6
Encapsulation in fats and waxes, 7
Encapsulation in emulsions and micellar systems, 7
Encapsulation in coacervated polymers, 8
Encapsulation using supercritical fluids, 9
Encapsulation into hydrogel matrices, 9
Encapsulation using flow-focusing technology, 10
Overview of controlled-release systems, 11
Matrix systems, 11
Reservoir systems, 12
Combination systems, 12
Release mechanisms, 13
References, 13
2 Encapsulation of edible active compounds using supercritical fluids, 16
Salima Varona, Ángel Martín and María José Cocero
Supercritical fluid technology, 16
Properties of supercritical fluids, 16
Implementation of processes using SCFs: Basic considerations, 17
Current industrial applications, 18
Particle formation processes, 19
SCFs as solvents, 19
SCFs as antisolvents, 20
SCFs as solutes, 22
SCFs as propellants, 22
Products, 24
Single compound products, 24
Co-precipitation and encapsulation processes: Carrier materials, 25
Encapsulation of solid active compounds, 26
Encapsulation of liquid active compounds, 27
Case study: Encapsulation of lavandin essential oil, 29
Encapsulation in water-soluble carriers, 30
Encapsulation in water-insoluble carriers, 32
Impregnation, 33
Comparison with alternative encapsulation technologies, 34
References, 36
3 Encapsulation by complex coacervation, 41
Curt Thies
Introductory comments, 41
Complex coacervation background and terminology, 42
Biopolymers and complex coacervation, 43
Biopolymer structure and properties, 43
Milk and vegetable protein denaturation, 48
Reproducibility issues, 49
Concluding biopolymer comments, 51
Stabilization and solidification of complex coacervate capsule shells, 52
Overview, 52
mTGase treatment of complex coacervate capsule shells, 53
Overview of current encapsulation protocols, 59
Concluding comments, 71
References, 71
4 Lyophilized liposomes for food applications: Fundamentals, processes, and potential applications, 78
Taise Toniazzo and Samantha C. Pinho
Introduction, 78
Liposomes: Structure, production methods, and applications in foods, 79
Formulation factors affecting liposome integrity after lyophilization, 84
Influence of the lyophilization process parameters and technological factors on the lyophilized product, 89
Concluding remarks and future perspectives, 90
References, 91
5 Microencapsulation of probiotics, 97
Thierry F. Vandamme, Gildas K. Gbassi, Trinh Lan Nguyen and Xiang Li
Introduction to probiotics, 97
Definitions, applications, and advantages of probiotics, 97
Introduction to microencapsulation, 99
Definition, 99
Purpose of microencapsulation, 100
Structural details of microcapsules, 100
Materials used in the microencapsulation of probiotics, 102
Factors affecting the microencapsulation effectiveness of probiotics, 114
Methods used in microencapsulating probiotics, 115
Extrusion technique for microencapsulation, 115
Emulsion technique, 115
Use of drying technology for microencapsulating Probiotics, 117
Interfacial polymerization and coacervation, 119
Co-crystallization method, 120
Molecular inclusion, 120
Centrifugal extrusion technique, 120
Conclusion and prospects, 121
References, 121
6 Emulsions as delivery systems in foods, 129
Ingrid A.M. Appelqvist, Matt Golding, Rob Vreeker and Nicolaas Jan Zuidam
Introduction, 129
Stabilization and destabilization of emulsion systems, 130
Emulsion stabilization, 130
Formulation design for food emulsions, 135
Release triggers for emulsions, 142
Delivery of water-soluble food actives via emulsions, 143
Water-in-oil emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 143
Effect of O/W emulsions on taste release and perception, 143
Double emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 145
Delivery of hydrophobic food actives via O/W emulsions, 149
Lipophilic health ingredients in O/W emulsions, 149
Aroma release from O/W emulsions, 149
Structured emulsions in hydrogels for controlled release of aromas, 153
Delivery of dietary fats as O/W emulsions and their protection against oxidation, 155
Future trends, 159
Nature-made emulsions, 159
Monodispersed emulsions, 163
References, 164
7 Improved solubilization and bioavailability of nutraceuticals in nanosized self-assembled liquid vehicles, 173
Nissim Garti, Eli Pinthus, Abraham Aserin and Aviram Spernath
Introduction, 173
U-Type microemulsions, swollen micelles, and progressive and full dilution, 177
Solubilization of nonsoluble nutraceuticals, 179
Lycopene, 180
Phytosterols, 185
Lutein and lutein ester, 187
Oxidative stability, 191
Bioavailability, 192
CoQ10 and Improved Bioavailability, 192
Water binding, 195
Conclusions, 197
References, 198
8 Encapsulation and controlled release in bakery applications, 204
Jamileh M. Lakkis
Introduction, 204
Encapsulation technologies for bakery applications, 205
Hot melt particle coating technology, 205
Spray congealing/chilling, 207
High pressure congealing (beta process), 209
Film-forming materials, 210
Waxes, 210
Resins, 212
Glycol polymers, 212
Fats and glycerides, 212
Lauric acid group, 212
Palmitic acid group, 213
Oleic/linoleic acid group, 213
Characteristics of wax and fat coating materials, 213
Ideal properties of encapsulated particles for bakery applications, 216
Good barrier properties, 216
Mechanical strength, 216
Surface morphology, 217
Adhesion and cohesiveness, 217
Particle size distribution, 217
Film thickness, 217
Melting properties, 217
Applications of encapsulated actives in bakery applications, 218
Leavening systems, 218
Encapsulated sweeteners, 222
Encapsulated antimicrobial agents, 224
Encapsulated minor ingredients, 229
Flavors, 229
Encapsulated nutrients, 229
References, 230
9 Encapsulation and controlled release applications in confectionery and oral care products, 236
Jamileh M. Lakkis
Introduction, 236
Physiology and organization of the oral area, 237
Permeability and barrier functions of the oral cavity, 239
Membranes – physiology and transport routes (Plasma and Epithelial membranes), 239
Plasma membranes, 239
Epithelial membranes, 240
Oral mucosa, 240
Saliva, 242
Keratinization, 242
Polarity, 243
pH, 243
Transport mechanisms across membranes, 244
Delivery sites in the oral cavity, 245
Advantages of the oral route for drug delivery, 247
Disadvantages of oral route delivery, 248
Dosage formulation, 249
Physico-chemical properties of the active and dosage, 249
Confectionery products as delivery systems, 249
Chewing gum as a delivery system, 249
Typical gum composition and manufacture, 250
Chewing gums for delivering flavors and non-medicated actives, 252
Effect of saliva flow rate on flavor release, 254
Effect of non-sugar sweeteners (Polyols), 255
Effect of sensates on flavor release from chewing gum, 256
Chewing gum for delivering cosmetic and medicated actives, 257
Oral and dental health (Antimicrobials, Dental Caries Prevention, Xerostomia), 257
Antimicrobials, 257
Chewing gums for delivering actives for minor pains, diabetes and weight management, 262
Chewing gum for delivering caffeine, 262
Chewing gums for delivering nicotine, 263
Chewing gum for delivering acetyl salicylic acid, 265
Chewing gum for delivering insulin, 265
Lozenges as delivery systems, 266
Lozenges for delivering flavors and sensates, 267
Lozenges for delivering relief from cough and sore throat, 268
Lozenges as delivery systems for oral care, 269
Lozenges for delivering nicotine (Smoking Cessation), 270
Oral thin films, 271
Seamless capsules, 274
References, 276
10 Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of microencapsulated minerals, 289
Diego Moretti and Michael Zimmermann
Introduction, 289
Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of minerals for human use, 291
In vitro methods, 293
Animal studies, 295
Studies in human subjects using tracers, 297
Intervention studies in humans, 300
Special considerations in evaluating the bioavailability of encapsulated minerals, 303
Solubility of the coating material in the GI tract, 303
Coating material as a functional ingredient, 303
Outlook and research questions, 304
References, 304
11 Effects of microencapsulation on bioavailability of fish oil omega-3 fatty acids, 309
Philip Christophersen, Mingshi Yang and Huiling Mu
Introduction, 309
Chemistry of omega-3 fatty acids, 310
Functional foods enriched with omega-3 fatty acids, 312
Bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 312
Effect of chemical structure, 314
Effect of microencapsulation on bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 315
Conclusions, 324
References, 325
12 Innovative applications of micro and nanoencapsulation in food packaging, 333
Murat Ozdemir and Tansel Kemerli
Introduction, 333
Antimicrobial food packaging materials and controlled release applications, 335
Antimicrobials-organic acids, peptides, essential oils, 344
Antimicrobial essential oils, 347
Metals and metal oxides, 348
Insect and rodent repellents, 351
Scented fragrance inserts and aroma-flavor releasing systems, 353
Encapsulated pigments and fillers, 357
Encapsulated inks and time-temperature indicators, 362
Future perspective, 368
References, 369
Index, 379
About the Author :
Dr Jamileh M. Lakkis has more than 20 years’ experience in the food, dietary supplements and consumer products industries. She has been very active in promoting and implementing microencapsulation and controlled release technologies in these industries.
