Encapsulation and Controlled Release Technologies in Food Systems

Table of Contents:
List of contributors, xiii Foreword, xvii Preface to second edition, xix Preface to first edition, xxi 1 Introduction, 1 Jamileh M. Lakkis Wall-forming materials, 2 Core materials, 2 Release triggers, 2 Payload, 2 Current approaches to encapsulation and controlled release, 3 Entrapment in carbohydrate matrices, 3 Complexation into cyclodextrins, 6 Encapsulation in microporous matrices: physical adsorption, 6 Encapsulation in fats and waxes, 7 Encapsulation in emulsions and micellar systems, 7 Encapsulation in coacervated polymers, 8 Encapsulation using supercritical fluids, 9 Encapsulation into hydrogel matrices, 9 Encapsulation using flow-focusing technology, 10 Overview of controlled-release systems, 11 Matrix systems, 11 Reservoir systems, 12 Combination systems, 12 Release mechanisms, 13 References, 13 2 Encapsulation of edible active compounds using supercritical fluids, 16 Salima Varona, Ángel Martín and María José Cocero Supercritical fluid technology, 16 Properties of supercritical fluids, 16 Implementation of processes using SCFs: Basic considerations, 17 Current industrial applications, 18 Particle formation processes, 19 SCFs as solvents, 19 SCFs as antisolvents, 20 SCFs as solutes, 22 SCFs as propellants, 22 Products, 24 Single compound products, 24 Co-precipitation and encapsulation processes: Carrier materials, 25 Encapsulation of solid active compounds, 26 Encapsulation of liquid active compounds, 27 Case study: Encapsulation of lavandin essential oil, 29 Encapsulation in water-soluble carriers, 30 Encapsulation in water-insoluble carriers, 32 Impregnation, 33 Comparison with alternative encapsulation technologies, 34 References, 36 3 Encapsulation by complex coacervation, 41 Curt Thies Introductory comments, 41 Complex coacervation background and terminology, 42 Biopolymers and complex coacervation, 43 Biopolymer structure and properties, 43 Milk and vegetable protein denaturation, 48 Reproducibility issues, 49 Concluding biopolymer comments, 51 Stabilization and solidification of complex coacervate capsule shells, 52 Overview, 52 mTGase treatment of complex coacervate capsule shells, 53 Overview of current encapsulation protocols, 59 Concluding comments, 71 References, 71 4 Lyophilized liposomes for food applications: Fundamentals, processes, and potential applications, 78 Taise Toniazzo and Samantha C. Pinho Introduction, 78 Liposomes: Structure, production methods, and applications in foods, 79 Formulation factors affecting liposome integrity after lyophilization, 84 Influence of the lyophilization process parameters and technological factors on the lyophilized product, 89 Concluding remarks and future perspectives, 90 References, 91 5 Microencapsulation of probiotics, 97 Thierry F. Vandamme, Gildas K. Gbassi, Trinh Lan Nguyen and Xiang Li Introduction to probiotics, 97 Definitions, applications, and advantages of probiotics, 97 Introduction to microencapsulation, 99 Definition, 99 Purpose of microencapsulation, 100 Structural details of microcapsules, 100 Materials used in the microencapsulation of probiotics, 102 Factors affecting the microencapsulation effectiveness of probiotics, 114 Methods used in microencapsulating probiotics, 115 Extrusion technique for microencapsulation, 115 Emulsion technique, 115 Use of drying technology for microencapsulating Probiotics, 117 Interfacial polymerization and coacervation, 119 Co-crystallization method, 120 Molecular inclusion, 120 Centrifugal extrusion technique, 120 Conclusion and prospects, 121 References, 121 6 Emulsions as delivery systems in foods, 129 Ingrid A.M. Appelqvist, Matt Golding, Rob Vreeker and Nicolaas Jan Zuidam Introduction, 129 Stabilization and destabilization of emulsion systems, 130 Emulsion stabilization, 130 Formulation design for food emulsions, 135 Release triggers for emulsions, 142 Delivery of water-soluble food actives via emulsions, 143 Water-in-oil emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 143 Effect of O/W emulsions on taste release and perception, 143 Double emulsions for controlling water-soluble actives, 145 Delivery of hydrophobic food actives via O/W emulsions, 149 Lipophilic health ingredients in O/W emulsions, 149 Aroma release from O/W emulsions, 149 Structured emulsions in hydrogels for controlled release of aromas, 153 Delivery of dietary fats as O/W emulsions and their protection against oxidation, 155 Future trends, 159 Nature-made emulsions, 159 Monodispersed emulsions, 163 References, 164 7 Improved solubilization and bioavailability of nutraceuticals in nanosized self-assembled liquid vehicles, 173 Nissim Garti, Eli Pinthus, Abraham Aserin and Aviram Spernath Introduction, 173 U-Type microemulsions, swollen micelles, and progressive and full dilution, 177 Solubilization of nonsoluble nutraceuticals, 179 Lycopene, 180 Phytosterols, 185 Lutein and lutein ester, 187 Oxidative stability, 191 Bioavailability, 192 CoQ10 and Improved Bioavailability, 192 Water binding, 195 Conclusions, 197 References, 198 8 Encapsulation and controlled release in bakery applications, 204 Jamileh M. Lakkis Introduction, 204 Encapsulation technologies for bakery applications, 205 Hot melt particle coating technology, 205 Spray congealing/chilling, 207 High pressure congealing (beta process), 209 Film-forming materials, 210 Waxes, 210 Resins, 212 Glycol polymers, 212 Fats and glycerides, 212 Lauric acid group, 212 Palmitic acid group, 213 Oleic/linoleic acid group, 213 Characteristics of wax and fat coating materials, 213 Ideal properties of encapsulated particles for bakery applications, 216 Good barrier properties, 216 Mechanical strength, 216 Surface morphology, 217 Adhesion and cohesiveness, 217 Particle size distribution, 217 Film thickness, 217 Melting properties, 217 Applications of encapsulated actives in bakery applications, 218 Leavening systems, 218 Encapsulated sweeteners, 222 Encapsulated antimicrobial agents, 224 Encapsulated minor ingredients, 229 Flavors, 229 Encapsulated nutrients, 229 References, 230 9 Encapsulation and controlled release applications in confectionery and oral care products, 236 Jamileh M. Lakkis Introduction, 236 Physiology and organization of the oral area, 237 Permeability and barrier functions of the oral cavity, 239 Membranes – physiology and transport routes (Plasma and Epithelial membranes), 239 Plasma membranes, 239 Epithelial membranes, 240 Oral mucosa, 240 Saliva, 242 Keratinization, 242 Polarity, 243 pH, 243 Transport mechanisms across membranes, 244 Delivery sites in the oral cavity, 245 Advantages of the oral route for drug delivery, 247 Disadvantages of oral route delivery, 248 Dosage formulation, 249 Physico-chemical properties of the active and dosage, 249 Confectionery products as delivery systems, 249 Chewing gum as a delivery system, 249 Typical gum composition and manufacture, 250 Chewing gums for delivering flavors and non-medicated actives, 252 Effect of saliva flow rate on flavor release, 254 Effect of non-sugar sweeteners (Polyols), 255 Effect of sensates on flavor release from chewing gum, 256 Chewing gum for delivering cosmetic and medicated actives, 257 Oral and dental health (Antimicrobials, Dental Caries Prevention, Xerostomia), 257 Antimicrobials, 257 Chewing gums for delivering actives for minor pains, diabetes and weight management, 262 Chewing gum for delivering caffeine, 262 Chewing gums for delivering nicotine, 263 Chewing gum for delivering acetyl salicylic acid, 265 Chewing gum for delivering insulin, 265 Lozenges as delivery systems, 266 Lozenges for delivering flavors and sensates, 267 Lozenges for delivering relief from cough and sore throat, 268 Lozenges as delivery systems for oral care, 269 Lozenges for delivering nicotine (Smoking Cessation), 270 Oral thin films, 271 Seamless capsules, 274 References, 276 10 Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of microencapsulated minerals, 289 Diego Moretti and Michael Zimmermann Introduction, 289 Assessing bioavailability and nutritional value of minerals for human use, 291 In vitro methods, 293 Animal studies, 295 Studies in human subjects using tracers, 297 Intervention studies in humans, 300 Special considerations in evaluating the bioavailability of encapsulated minerals, 303 Solubility of the coating material in the GI tract, 303 Coating material as a functional ingredient, 303 Outlook and research questions, 304 References, 304 11 Effects of microencapsulation on bioavailability of fish oil omega-3 fatty acids, 309 Philip Christophersen, Mingshi Yang and Huiling Mu Introduction, 309 Chemistry of omega-3 fatty acids, 310 Functional foods enriched with omega-3 fatty acids, 312 Bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 312 Effect of chemical structure, 314 Effect of microencapsulation on bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, 315 Conclusions, 324 References, 325 12 Innovative applications of micro and nanoencapsulation in food packaging, 333 Murat Ozdemir and Tansel Kemerli Introduction, 333 Antimicrobial food packaging materials and controlled release applications, 335 Antimicrobials-organic acids, peptides, essential oils, 344 Antimicrobial essential oils, 347 Metals and metal oxides, 348 Insect and rodent repellents, 351 Scented fragrance inserts and aroma-flavor releasing systems, 353 Encapsulated pigments and fillers, 357 Encapsulated inks and time-temperature indicators, 362 Future perspective, 368 References, 369 Index, 379

About the Author :
Dr Jamileh M. Lakkis has more than 20 years’ experience in the food, dietary supplements and consumer products industries. She has been very active in promoting and implementing microencapsulation and controlled release technologies in these industries.