Fish Vaccination

Fish farming, in seawater and in freshwater, in cages, tanks or ponds, makes an ever-increasing and significant contribution to the production of aquatic food in many regions of the world. During the last few decades there has been significant progress and expansion in the aquaculture sector, characterized by intensified production and the exploitation of many new species. Aquaculture must be a sustainable bio-production, environmentally as well as economically. Disease prevention in order to reduce losses, and the use of antimicrobials is crucial in this perspective. Vaccination has, in a few years, become the most important method for disease prevention in aquaculture, and effective prophylaxis based on stimulation of the immune system of the fish is essential for further development of the industry. This book provides general information about disease prevention in fish by vaccination, as well as specific descriptions of the correct use of vaccines against the most important bacterial and viral infectious diseases of aquatic animals. The book is written by some of the world’s leading experts in the subject, drawn from many countries where aquaculture is a significant and expanding part of the economy. Fish Vaccination is an encyclopedia of fish vaccinology for every present and future aquaculturist. Professionals in the aquaculture sector, including fish veterinarians and fish biologists, within the industry, in scientific institutions and regulatory authorities will all find a huge wealth of commercially important knowledge within this book. Libraries in all universities where aquaculture, biological and veterinary sciences are studied and taught should have copies of this important book on their shelves.

Table of Contents:
Contributors xv Preface xix 1 The History of Fish Vaccination 1 Roar Gudding and Thomas Goodrich 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Aquaculture 2 1.3 Immunology 2 1.4 Disease Prevention 3 1.5 Scientific Production – Reviews and Conferences 4 1.6 Successes and Failures 7 1.7 The Pioneers 7 1.8 Concluding Remarks 8 References 9 2 Vaccination as a Preventive Measure 12 Roar Gudding 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Biosecurity and Vaccination 13 2.3 Use of Vaccination in Aquaculture 15 2.4 Vaccination Against Different Diseases 16 2.5 Herd Immunity 17 2.6 Economic Considerations 18 2.7 Risk Assessment 18 2.8 The Market for Fish Vaccines 19 References 20 3 Non-replicating Vaccines 22 Hetron Mweemba Munang’andu, Stephen Mutoloki and Øystein Evensen 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 Classification 22 3.3 Inactivated Vaccines – Methods of Inactivation 24 3.4 Evaluation of Inactivation Efficacy 28 3.5 Measures of Efficacy for Inactivated Vaccines 28 3.6 Mechanisms of Vaccine Protection 29 3.7 Antibodies as Correlates of Protective Immunity 29 3.8 Antigen Dose as Correlate of Protective Immunity 30 References 30 4 Replicating Vaccines 33 Craig A. Shoemaker and Phillip H. Klesius 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Attenuation Strategies – Bacterial Vaccines 34 4.3 Attenuation Strategies – Viral Vaccines 38 4.4 Induction of Immunity 39 4.5 Vaccine Delivery 41 4.6 Vaccine Safety Considerations 41 4.7 Acknowledgement 41 References 42 5 DNA Vaccines 47 Eirik Biering and Kira Salonius 5.1 Introduction 47 5.2 Comparison of DNA Vaccines with Conventional Inactivated Products: Advantages and Disadvantages 48 5.3 DNA Vaccines for Veterinary Use 51 5.4 Biosecurity and Regulatory Considerations 52 References 54 6 Mucosal Vaccination of Fish 56 Jan H.W.M. Rombout and Viswanath Kiron 6.1 Introduction 56 6.2 History of “Mucosal” Vaccination 57 6.3 Mucosal versus Systemic Immunity in Fish 58 6.4 Immersion Vaccination 59 6.5 Oral Vaccination 60 6.6 Perspectives 64 References 64 7 Adjuvants in Fish Vaccines 68 Carolina Tafalla, Jarl Bøgwald, Roy A. Dalmo, Hetron Mweemba Munang’andu and Øystein Evensen 7.1 Introduction 68 7.2 Vaccine Formulations 69 7.3 Principles of Adjuvant Actions 70 7.4 Antigenic Component 70 7.5 Adjuvants 71 7.6 Antigen Delivery Systems 71 7.7 Delivery Vehicles 71 7.8 Emulsion Vaccines 72 7.9 Biodegradable Particulate Delivery Systems 74 7.10 Fusion Protein Delivery System 74 7.11 Immunomodulators 75 7.12 Stabilizers 81 7.13 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 81 7.14 Acknowledgements 81 References 81 8 The Innate Immune Response in Fish 85 Jorunn B. Jørgensen 8.1 Introduction 85 8.2 Innate Immunity: A Sensing and an Effector Arm 86 8.3 Professional Phagocytes: The Macrophages and the Neutrophilic Granulocytes 86 8.4 Natural Killer (NK)-Like Cells 88 8.5 The Sensing Arm of Innate Immunity 88 8.6 TLRs are the Best Studied PRRS in Fish 89 8.7 NOD-Like and RIG-I Receptors are Found in Fish 90 8.8 Lectins are Multifunctional Sensor Molecules for Carbohydrate Ligands 91 8.9 PRRs and the Induction of Immunity 92 8.10 Cytokines in Innate Immunity 92 8.11 Interferons 94 8.12 The Complement System 95 8.13 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 97 References 97 9 The Adaptive Immune Response in Fish 104 Stephen Mutoloki, Jorunn B. Jørgensen and Øystein Evensen 9.1 Introduction 105 9.2 Lymphocytes are the Key Cells of the Adaptive Immune System 106 9.3 Antigen Trapping and Activation of the Lymphocytes 106 9.4 Antigen Presenting Cells (APCS) of Myeloid Origin 107 9.5 Immunoglobulins and B Lymphocytes 108 9.6 T Lymphocytes 110 9.7 Cytotoxic T-Cells 111 9.8 Helper T-Cells 111 References 113 10 Development, Production and Control of Fish Vaccines 116 Dag Knappskog, Joseph Koumans, Inger Kvitvang, Arne Marius Fiskum and Rune Wiulsrød 10.1 Introduction 116 10.2 Manufacturing License 117 10.3 Vaccine Development 121 10.4 Development of Tests 122 10.5 Transfers 123 10.6 Manufacturing 124 References 127 11 Legal Requirements and Authorization of Fish Vaccines 128 Anja Holm, Byron E. Rippke and Ken Noda 11.1 Introduction 128 11.2 Manufacturer Authorization 128 11.3 Food Safety – Maximum Residue Limits 131 11.4 Genetically Modified Organisms 131 11.5 DNA Vaccines 132 11.6 Prohibition of Use of Certain Vaccines 132 11.7 Use of Vaccines that are not Authorized 132 11.8 Autogenous Vaccines 133 11.9 Regional Rules and Competent Authorities 133 11.10 The European Union and Connected EEA Countries 133 11.11 United States of America 135 11.12 Japan 137 11.13 Other Relevant Organizations: OIE, FAO, WHO 138 References 138 12 Vaccination Strategies and Procedures 140 Atle Lillehaug 12.1 Introduction 141 12.2 Timing of Vaccination 141 12.3 Water Temperature 142 12.4 Size of Fish 142 12.5 Vaccination Methods 143 12.6 Time for Protection to Develop – Duration of Protection 148 12.7 Booster Vaccination 149 12.8 Vaccination Economy 150 References 150 13 Side-Effects of Vaccination 153 Trygve T. Poppe and Erling O. Koppang 13.1 Introduction 153 13.2 Acute Side-Effects 154 13.3 Chronic Side-Effects 155 13.4 Injection Site Reactions 155 13.5 Extensive Abdominal Lesions 156 13.6 Lesions in Other Organs 158 13.7 Skeletal Lesions 159 13.8 Autoimmunity 159 13.9 Lesions in Non-Salmonid Species 159 References 160 14 Future Fish Vaccinology 162 Øystein Evensen 14.1 Molecular Technologies 162 14.2 Recombinant Vaccines 163 14.3 Marker Vaccines 166 14.4 Mucosal Vaccination 166 14.5 Vaccines Against Parasitic Diseases 167 14.6 Vaccines for Controlling Reproduction 167 14.7 Improved Formulations 168 14.8 Immunomodulation 168 14.9 Cytokines and DAMPS (Danger-Associated Molecular Pattern) as Adjuvants 169 14.10 Concluding Remarks 169 References 170 15 Vaccination against Vibriosis 172 Duncan J. Colquhoun and Atle Lillehaug 15.1 Vibriosis 172 15.2 Occurrence and Significance 173 15.3 Etiology 174 15.4 Pathogenesis 176 15.5 Vaccines 177 15.6 Vaccination Procedures 179 15.7 Vaccine Effect 179 15.8 Side-Effects 180 15.9 Regulations 180 References 181 16 Vaccination against Furunculosis 185 Paul J. Midtlyng 16.1 Introduction 185 16.2 Occurrence and Significance 186 16.3 Etiology 187 16.4 Pathogenesis and Virulence 187 16.5 Antigens 189 16.6 Vaccines 189 16.7 Vaccination Procedures 190 16.8 Effects 191 16.9 Side-Effects 192 16.10 Vaccination Against Atypical Furunculosis 192 16.11 Legal Aspects and Regulations 193 References 194 17 Vaccination against Photobacteriosis 200 Jesús L. Romalde 17.1 Occurrence and Significance 200 17.2 Etiology 202 17.3 Pathogenesis 202 17.4 Vaccines 204 17.5 Vaccination Procedures 205 17.6 Effect 206 17.7 Side-Effects 206 17.8 Regulations 207 References 207 18 Vaccination against Enteric Septicemia of Catfish 211 Phillip H. Klesius and Julia W. Pridgeon 18.1 Significance 211 18.2 Occurrence 212 18.3 Etiology 212 18.4 Pathogenesis 213 18.5 Virulence Factors 214 18.6 Vaccines and Immunity 214 18.7 Regulations (US) 220 18.8 Vaccination Practices 220 References 221 19 Vaccination against Yersiniosis 226 Andrew Bridle and Barbara Nowak 19.1 Yersiniosis 226 19.2 Occurrence and Significance 227 19.3 Etiology 227 19.4 Pathogenesis 228 19.5 Vaccines 229 19.6 Vaccination Procedures 230 19.7 Vaccine Effect 231 19.8 Side-Effects 232 19.9 Regulations 232 References 233 20 Vaccination against Streptococcosis and Lactococcosis 236 Julia W. Pridgeon and Phillip H. Klesius 20.1 Occurrence 236 20.2 Significance 236 20.3 Etiology 237 20.4 Pathogenesis 238 20.5 Vaccines 239 20.6 Vaccination Procedures and Vaccine Effect 240 20.7 Side-Effects 242 20.8 Regulations 242 References 243 21 Vaccination against Piscirickettsiosis 246 Sergio H. Marshall and Jaime A. Tobar 21.1 Occurrence and Significance 246 21.2 Etiology 247 21.3 Pathogenesis 248 21.4 Vaccines and Vaccination 248 21.5 Current Vaccine Status 249 21.6 Future Perspectives 251 References 252 22 Vaccination against Bacterial Kidney Disease 255 Diane G. Elliott, Gregory D. Wiens, K. Larry Hammell and Linda D. Rhodes 22.1 Introduction 255 22.2 Occurrence 256 22.3 Significance 256 22.4 Etiology 257 22.5 Pathogenesis 259 22.6 Vaccines 260 22.7 Vaccination Procedures 261 22.8 Vaccine Effects and Side-Effects 262 22.9 Regulations 264 22.10 Future Directions 264 References 266 23 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Flavobacteriaceae Species 273 Krister Sundell, Eva Högfors-Rönnholm and Tom Wiklund 23.1 Introduction 273 23.2 Bacterial Gill Disease (Flavobacterium branchiophilum) 274 23.3 Columnaris Disease (Flavobacterium columnare) 275 23.4 Bacterial Cold-Water Disease (Flavobacterium psychrophilum) 278 23.5 Tenacibaculosis (Tenacibaculum maritimum) 281 References 282 24 Vaccination against Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia and Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis 289 Stéphane Biacchesi and Michel Brémont 24.1 Occurrence and Significance 289 24.2 Etiology 291 24.3 Pathogenesis 292 24.4 Vaccines 293 24.5 Concluding Remarks 297 24.6 Acknowledgements 297 References 298 25 Vaccination against Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis 303 Espen Rimstad 25.1 Occurrence and Significance 303 25.2 Etiology 305 25.3 Pathogenesis 306 25.4 Vaccines and Vaccine Effect 306 25.5 Vaccine-Induced Immune Responses 309 25.6 Regulations 309 References 309 26 Vaccination against Infectious Salmon Anemia 313 Knut Falk 26.1 Occurrence and Significance 313 26.2 Etiology 314 26.3 Pathogenesis 315 26.4 Vaccines 316 26.5 Regulatory Issues 317 References 318 27 Vaccination against Koi Herpesvirus Disease 321 Arnon Dishon, Ofer Ashoulin, E. Scott Weber III and Moshe Kotler 27.1 Occurrence and Significance 321 27.2 Etiology 322 27.3 Pathogenesis 323 27.4 Vaccine and Vaccination 324 27.5 Efficacy 327 27.6 Safety 329 27.7 Regulatory Issues 330 References 330 28 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Salmonid alphavirus 334 Emilie Mérour and Michel Brémont 28.1 Occurrence and Significance 334 28.2 Etiology 335 28.3 Pathogenesis 338 28.4 Immunity and Vaccine Development 338 References 339 29 Vaccination against Diseases Caused by Betanodavirus 341 Sonal Patel and Audun H. Nerland 29.1 Viral Encephalopathy and Retinopathy (VER) 341 29.2 Occurrence and Significance 342 29.3 Etiology 342 29.4 Pathogenesis 343 29.5 Immune Status and Response to NNV 344 29.6 Vaccines 344 29.7 Replicating Vaccines 345 29.8 Inactivated Virus 347 29.9 Recombinant Protein/Peptide 347 29.10 DNA Vaccines 348 29.11 Future Prospects and Recommendations 349 References 349 30 Immunostimulation of Crustaceans 352 Indrani Karunasagar, Singaiah NaveenKumar, Biswajit Maiti and Praveen Rai 30.1 Introduction 352 30.2 Immune System of Crustaceans 353 30.3 Immunostimulants of Crustaceans 361 30.4 Acknowledgements 366 References 366 Index 373

About the Author :
ROAR GUDDING has been working with vaccination in veterinary medicine, including vaccination of fish, at the Norwegian Veterinary Institute for more than 25 years. He has also been Professor of Immunoprophylaxis at the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, and is the author of textbooks about vaccination of terrestrial and aquatic animals. ATLE LILLEHAUG has a PhD in fish vaccinology from 1993, based on field studies and clinical trials. He has been involved in the practical implementation of vaccination in Norwegian fish farming, and is now working with fish health in a broad sense. He has been the head of the Section for Fish Health at the Norwegian Veterinary Institute for several years. ØYSTEIN EVENSEN is Professor at the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science. He has been working in the field of fish vaccination over the last 20 years. He also has more than seven years of experience from the pharmaceutical industry where he worked on the development of vaccines for fish farming globally.

Review :
“That notwithstanding, this book is an essential resource for veterinarians, aquaculturists, and fish biologists interested in disease prevention and biosecurity, improvement of aquaculture production, and the enhancement of the health and welfare of captive fish populations or for anyone interested in fish vaccinology.”  (Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 15 September 2014)