Created Equal: A Social and Political History of the United States, Volume I (to 1877)

In its comprehensive and inclusive view of American history, Created Equal provides an accurate, broad, deep, and compelling view of the nation¿s past. Emphasizing social history—including the lives and labors of women, immigrants, working people, and persons of color in all regions of the country—Created Equal also delivers the basics of political and economic history, thoughtfully examining the roles that all peoples have played in creating and defining those aspects of the nation¿s past. Created Equal explores an expanding notion of American identity—one that encompasses the stories of diverse groups of people, territorial growth and expansion, the rise of the middle class, technological innovation and economic development, and engagement with other nations and peoples of the world.

Table of Contents:
Detailed Contents. Maps. Figures and Tables. Features. Preface. Supplements. A Conversation with the Authors. Meet the Authors. Acknowledgements. I. NORTH AMERICAN FOUNDERS. 1. First Founders. Ancient America. The Question of Origins. The Newest Approaches. The Archaic World. The Rise of Maize Agriculture. A Thousand Years of Change, a.d. 500 to 1500. Valleys of the Sun: The Mesoamerican Empires. The Anasazi: Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde. The Mississippians: Cahokia and Moundville. Linking the Continents. Oceanic Travel: The Norse and the Chinese. Portugal and the Beginnings of Globalization. Looking for the Indies: da Gama and Columbus. In the Wake of Columbus: Competition and Exchange. Spain Enters the Americas. The Devastation of the Indies. The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec. Magellan and Cortés Prompt New Searches. Three New Views of North America. The Protestant Reformation Plays Out in America. Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Europe. Competing Powers Lay Claim to Florida. The Background of English Exploration. Lost Colony: The Roanoke Experience. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: “These Gods That We Worship Give Us Everything We Need.” Connecting History: Lost at Sea. Mapping History: The American Bottom, Where Three Rivers Meet. 2. European Footholds on the Fringes of North America, 1600—1660. Spain’s Ocean-Spanning Reach. Vizcaíno in California and Japan. Oñate Creates a Spanish Foothold in the Southwest New Mexico Survives: New Flocks Among Old Pueblos. Conversion and Rebellion in Spanish Florida. France and Holland: Overseas Competition for Spain. The Founding of New France. Competing for the Beaver Trade. A Dutch Colony on the Hudson River. “All Sorts of Nationalities”: Diverse New Amsterdam. English Beginnings on the Atlantic Coast. The Virginia Company and Jamestown. “Starving Time” and Seeds of Representative Government. Launching the Plymouth Colony. The Puritan Experiment. Formation of the Massachusetts Bay Company. “We Shall Be As a City upon a Hill.” Dissenters: Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Expansion and Violence: The Pequot War. The Chesapeake Bay Colonies. The Demise of the Virginia Company. Maryland: The Catholic Refuge. The Dwellings of English Newcomers. The Lure of Tobacco. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Wind Power: Traditional and Novel. Interpreting History: Anne Bradstreet: “The Tenth Muse, Lately Sprung Up in America.” Mapping History: New York Harbor: Quiet Bay to Global Port. 3. Controlling the Edges of the Continent, 1660—1715. France and the American Interior. The Rise of the Sun King. Exploring the Mississippi Valley. King William’s War in the Northeast. Founding the Louisiana Colony. The Spanish Empire on the Defensive. The Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico. Navajos and Spanish on the Southwestern Frontier. Borderland Conflict in Texas and Florida. England’s American Empire Takes Shape. Monarchy Restored and Navigation Controlled. Fierce Anglo—Dutch Competition. The New Restoration Colonies. The Contrasting Worlds of Pennsylvania and Carolina. Bloodshed in the English Colonies: 1670—1690. Metacom’s War in New England. Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia. The “Glorious Revolution” in England. The “Glorious Revolution” in America. Consequences of War and Growth: 1690—1715. Salem’s Wartime Witch Hunt. The Uneven Costs of War. Storm Clouds in the South. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Homeland Security and Deep Fears of the Enemy Within. Interpreting History: “Marry or do not marry.” Mapping History: Sonora Desert Region. II. A CENTURY OF COLONIAL EXPANSION TO 1775. 4. African Enslavement: The Terrible Transformation. The Descent into Race Slavery. The Caribbean Precedent. Ominous Beginnings. Alternative Sources of Labor. The Fateful Transition. The Growth of Slave Labor Camps. Black Involvement in Bacon’s Rebellion. The Rise of a Slaveholding Tidewater Elite. Closing the Vicious Circle in the Chesapeake. England Enters the Atlantic Slave Trade. Trade Ties Between Europe and Africa. The Slave Trade on the African Coast. The Middle Passage Experience. Saltwater Slaves Arrive in America. Survival in a Strange New Land. African Rice Growers in South Carolina. Patterns of Resistance. A Wave of Rebellion. The Transformation Completed. Uncertain Voices of Dissent. Is This Consistent “with Christianity or Common Justice”? Oglethorpe’s Antislavery Experiment. The End of Equality in Georgia. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Reparations for Slavery? Interpreting History: “Releese Us out of This Cruell Bondegg.” Mapping History: The Coastal Low Country and the Sea Islands. 5. An American Babel, 1713—1763. New Cultures on the Western Plains. The Spread of the Horse. The Rise of the Comanche. Creation of the Comanchería on the Southern Plains. The Expansion of the Sioux. Britain’s Mainland Colonies: A New Abundance of People. Population Growth on the Home Front. “Packed Like Herrings”: Arrivals from Abroad. Non-English Newcomers in the British Colonies. The Varied Economic Landscape. Sources of Gain in the Southeast. Chesapeake Bay’s Tobacco Economy. New England Takes to the Sea. Economic Expansion in the Middle Colonies. Matters of Faith: The Great Awakening. Seeds of Religious Toleration. The Onset of the Great Awakening: Pietism and George Whitefield. “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry. The Consequences of the Great Awakening. The French Lose a North American Empire. Prospects and Problems Facing French Colonists. British Settlers Confront the Threat from France. An American Fight Becomes a Global Conflict. Quebec Taken and North America Refashioned. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: “Pastures Can Be Found Almost Everywhere”: Joshua von Kocherthal Recruits Germans to Carolina. Connecting History: Sounds Around Us: The Lost World of High Fidelity. Mapping History: Comancheria. 6. The Limits of Imperial Control, 1763—1775. New Challenges to Spain’s Expanded Empire. Pacific Exploration, Hawaiian Contact. The Russians Lay Claim to Alaska. Spain Colonizes the California Coast. New Challenges to Britain’s Expanded Empire. Midwestern Lands and Pontiac’s War for Indian Independence. Grenville’s Effort at Reform. The Stamp Act Imposed. The Stamp Act Resisted. “The Unconquerable Rage of the People.” Power Corrupts: An English Framework for Revolution. Americans Practice Vigilance and Restraint. Rural Unrest: Tenant Farmers and Regulators. A Conspiracy of Corrupt Ministers? The Townshend Duties. The Boston Massacre. The Gaspee Affair. Launching a Revolution. The Tempest over Tea. The Intolerable Acts. From Words to Action. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Movement Building against the Odds. Interpreting History: “Exert Your Selves This Once in Our Favour”: Petition Signed by 30 North Carolina Regulators, October 4, 1768. Mapping History: Lake Erie, Detroit to Niagara. III. THE UNFINISHED REVOLUTION, 1775—1803. 7. Revolutionaries at War, 1775—1783. “Things Are Now Come to That Crisis.” The Second Continental Congress Takes Control. “Liberty to Slaves.” The Struggle to Control Boston. Declaring Independence. “Time to Part.” The British Attack New York. “Victory or Death”: A Desperate Gamble Pays Off. The Struggle to Win French Support. Breakdown in British Planning. Saratoga Tips the Balance. Forging an Alliance with France. Legitimate States, a Respectable Military. The Articles of Confederation. Creating State Constitutions. Tensions in the Military Ranks. Shaping a Diverse Army. The War at Sea. The Long Road to Yorktown. Indian Warfare and Frontier Outposts. The Unpredictable War in the South. The Final Campaign. Winning the Peace. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: “Revoking Those Sacred Trusts Which Are Violated”: A Declaration Signed by 15 Grand Jury Members in South Carolina, May 1776. Connecting History: Uncanny Similarities: Britain’s Vietnam. Mapping History: The Kennebec River Valley. 8. New Beginnings: The 1780s. Beating Swords into Plowshares. Will the Army Seize Control? The Society of the Cincinnati. Renaming the Landscape. An Independent Culture. Competing for Control of the Mississippi Valley. Disputed Territory: The Old Southwest. American Claims and Indian Resistance. “We Are Now Masters”: The Old Northwest. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Debtor and Creditor, Taxpayer and Bondholder. New Sources of Wealth. “Tumults in New England.” The Massachusetts Regulation. Drafting a New Constitution. Philadelphia: A Gathering of Like-Minded Men. Compromise and Consensus. Questions of Representation. Slavery: The Deepest Dilemma. Ratification and the Bill of Rights. The Campaign for Ratification. Dividing and Conquering the Anti-Federalists. Adding a Bill of Rights. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: Demobilization: “Turned Adrift Like Old Worn-Out Horses.” Connecting History: Equal Representation? Mapping History: Eastern Tennessee and Kentucky. 9. Revolutionary Legacies, 1789—1803. Competing Political Visions in the New Nation. Federalism and Democratic-Republicanism in Action. Planting the Seeds of Industry. Echoes of the American Revolution in the Countryside. Securing Peace Abroad, Suppressing Dissent at Home. People of Color: New Freedoms, New Struggles. Blacks in the North. The Story of One Judge. Manumissions in the South. Continuity and Change in the West. Indian Wars in the Great Lakes Region. Indian Acculturation in the West. Land Speculation and Slavery. Shifting Social Identities in the Post-Revolutionary Era. The Search for Common Ground. Artisan—Politicians and the Plight of Post-Revolutionary Workers. “Republican Mothers” and Other Well-Off Women. A Loss of Political Influence: The Fate of Nonelite Women. The Election of 1800: Revolution or Reversal? The Enigmatic Thomas Jefferson. Protecting and Expanding the National Interest: Jefferson’s Administration to 1803. Conclusion Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Civil Liberties Under Siege During Wartime and Other National Crises. Interpreting History: A Sailmaker Discusses “Means for the Preservation of Public Liberty” on the Fourth of July, 1797. Mapping History: The Delaware Valley. IV. EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES OF FREEDOM AND SLAVERY, 1803—1848. 10. Defending and Expanding the New Nation, 1803—1818. The British Menace. The Embargo of 1807. On the Brink of War. The War of 1812. Pushing North. Fighting on Many Fronts. An Uncertain Victory. The “Era of Good Feelings”? Praise and Respect for Veterans after the War. A Thriving Economy. Transformations in the Workplace. The Market Revolution. The Rise of the Cotton Plantation Economy. Regional Economies of the South. Black Family Life and Labor. Resistance to Slavery. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: Cherokee Women Petition Against Further Land Sales to Whites in 1817. Connecting History: Revolutions in Transportation. Mapping History: The Missouri River. 11. Moving Westward: Society and Politics in the “Age of the Common Man,” 1819—1832 The Politics Behind Western Migration. The Missouri Compromise. Ways West: The Erie Canal. Spreading American Culture and Slavery. Migration and its Effects on the Western Environment. The Panic of 1819 and the Plight of Western Debtors. The Monroe Doctrine. Andrew Jackson’s Rise to Power. Federal Authority and Its Opponents. Judicial Federalism and the Limits of Law. The “Tariff of Abominations.” The “Monster Bank.” Real People in the “Age of the Common Man.” Wards, Workers, and Warriors: Native Americans. Slaves and Free People of Color. Legal and Economic Dependence: The Status of Women. Ties That Bound a Growing Population. New Visions of Religious Faith. Literate and Literary America. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: The Strange Career of the Monroe Doctrine. Interpreting History: José Agustin de Escudero Describes New Mexico as a Land of Opportunity, 1827. Mapping History: Rhode Island and Eastern Massachusetts. 12. Peoples in Motion, 1832—1848. Mass Migrations. Newcomers from Western Europe. The Slave Trade. Trails of Tears. Migrants in the West. Government-Sponsored Exploration. The Oregon Trail. New Places, New Identities. Changes in the Southern Plains.  A Multitude of Voices in the National Political Arena. Whigs, Workers, and the Panic of 1837. Suppression of Antislavery Sentiment. Nativists as a Political Force. Networks of Reformers. Reform Impulses. Public Education. Alternative Visions of Social Life. The United States Extends Its Reach. The Lone Star Republic. The Election of 1844. War with Mexico. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Connecting History: Diasporas. Interpreting History: Senator John C. Calhoun Warns Against Incorporating Mexico into the United States. Mapping History: Columbia and Willamette River Valleys. V. Disunion and Reunion. 13. The Crisis over Slavery, 1848—1860. Regional Economies and Conflicts. Native American Economies Transformed. Land Conflicts in the Southwest. Ethnic and Economic Diversity in the Midwest. Regional Economies of the South. A Free Labor Ideology in the North. Individualism vs. Group Identity. Putting into Practice Ideas of Social Inferiority. “A Teeming Nation”–America in Literature. Challenges to Individualism. The Paradox of Southern Political Power. The Party System in Disarray. The Compromise of 1850. Expansionism and Political Upheaval. The Republican Alliance. The Deepening Conflict over Slavery. The Rising Tide of Violence. The Dred Scott Decision. The Lincoln—Douglas Debates. Harpers Ferry and the Presidential Election of 1860. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: Professor Howe on the Subordination of Women. Connecting History: Systems of Unfree Labor. Mapping History: California-Nevada Mining Region. 14. “To Fight to Gain a Country”: The Civil War. Mobilization for War, 1861—1862. The Secession Impulse. Preparing to Fight. Barriers to Southern Mobilization. Indians and Immigrants in the Service of the Confederacy. The Ethnic Confederacy. The Course of War, 1862—1864. The Republicans’ War. The Ravages of War. The Emancipation Proclamation. Persistent Obstacles to the Confederacy’s Grand Strategy. The Other War: African American Struggles for Liberation. The Unfolding of Freedom. Enemies Within the Confederacy. The Ongoing Fight Against Prejudice. Battle Fronts and Home Fronts in 1863. Disaffection in the Confederacy. The Tide Turns Against the South. Civil Unrest in the North. The Desperate South. The Prolonged Defeat of the Confederacy, 1864—1865. “Hard War” Toward African Americans and Indians. “Father Abraham.” Sherman's March from Atlanta to the Sea. The Last Days of the Confederacy. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: A Virginia Slaveholder Objects to the Impressment of Slaves. Connecting History: Civil Disorders During Wartime. Mapping History: Virginia’s Civil War Battlefields. 15. In the Wake of War: Consolidating a Triumphant Union, 1865—1877. The Struggle over the South. Wartime Preludes to Postwar Policies. Presidential Reconstruction, 1865—1867. The Southern Postwar Labor Problem. Building Free Communities. Landscapes and Soundscapes of Freedom. Congressional Reconstruction: The Radicals’ Plan. The Remarkable Career of Blanche K. Bruce. Claiming Territory for the Union. Federal Military Campaigns Against Western Indians. The Postwar Western Labor Problem. Land Use in an Expanding Nation. Buying Territory for the Union. The Republican Vision and Its Limits. Postbellum Origins of the Woman Suffrage Movement. Workers’ Organizations. Political Corruption and the Decline of Republican Idealism. Conclusion. Sites to Visit. For Further Reading. Interpreting History: A Southern Labor Contract. Connecting History: Two Presidents Impeached. Mapping History: Great Salt Lake Basin.   Appendix. The Declaration of Independence. The Articles of Confederation. The Constitution of the United States of America. Amendments to the Constitution. Presidential Elections, 1789–2004. Glossary.   Credits.   Index.   Maps. The Earliest Americans. America in the Millennium Before Columbus, A.D. 500–1500. The Expectations of Christopher Columbus. Opening New Ocean Pathways Around the Globe, 1420–1520. The Extent of North American Exploration by 1592. The Spanish Southwest in the Early Seventeenth Century. Sites of Catholic Missions in Spanish Florida in the Mid-Seventeenth Century. European and Native American Contact in the Northeast, 1600–1660. Cultures Meet on the Chesapeake. France in the American Interior, 1670–1720. Changes in the Southwest. Metacom’s War in New England, 1675–1676. Virginia and the Carolinas, c. 1710. Regions of the African Slave Trade in 1700. One Century in the Transatlantic Slave Trade (1700–1800): African Origins, European Carriers, American Destinations. Enslaved People Living in North America in 1750: Distribution by Colony, Percentage of Total Population. English-Spanish Competition and the Expansion of Slavery into Georgia. The Rapid Spread of Spanish Horses Across the Western Plains, 1675–1750. The Horse Frontier Meets the Gun Frontier, 1675–1750. Economic Regions of the British Colonies. The British Conquest of New France, 1754–1760. Russian Alaska. Spanish Exploration After 1760 and the Start of the California Missions. British North America, April 1775. Britain at War: The Global Context, 1778–1783. Overview of the Revolutionary War. The Revolutionary War in the North. The Revolutionary War in the West. The Revolutionary War in the South. The Spread of Smallpox Across North America, 1775–1782. Southern Land Debates After 1783. Native American Ohio Before 1785. Settlers’ Ohio, After 1785. The Northwest Territory. The Southwest in 1800. Western Land Claims of the States. Lewis and Clark. The Public Domain in 1810. War of 1812, The Northern Front. The Center of Population Moves West, 1790–1970. The Missouri Compromise. Principal Canals Built by 1860. Mexico’s Far Northern Frontier in 1822. The Cherokee Nation After 1820. Population Change in Ireland, 1841–1851. Expansion of the Cotton Belt and Slave Trading Routes, 1801–1860. Indian Removal. Western Trails. The U.S.-Mexican War. Territorial Expansion in the Nineteenth Century. The Underground Railroad. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854. The Secession of Southern States, 1860. Slavery in the United States, 1860. Mescalero Apache Battle Confederates, Central New Mexico, 1861. The Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863. African Americans in Civil War Battles, 1863–1865. Sherman’s March to the Sea, 1864–1865. Radical Reconstruction. Plains Indian Wars, 1865–1900. The Compromise of 1877. Figures. The Columbian Exchange. North American Colonies by Nationality, 1560–1660. The Tough Choice to Start Over. Cutaway Reconstruction Drawing of a House for “Ordinary Beginners.” Goods Traded in Africa. Reward Notices for Escaped Slaves, Printed in the Pennsylvania Gazette. Comparison of Overall Population Structure by Gender and Age: British Mainland Colonies, 1760s, and United States, 1980s. British Government Expenses on Armed Forces Throughout the World (in Millions of Pounds), 1775–1782. Concentration of Security Notes in the Hands of a Few: The Example of New Hampshire in 1785. Exports of U.S. Cotton, 1784–1800. Distribution of Wealth in the United States and Europe, 1798. Growth in Free Black Population of the South, 1790–1860. Percentage of White Men Eligible To Vote in the United States, 1792. Estimated Population of the United States, 1790–1860. Cherokee Nation Intercensus Changes, 1809–1824. Occupational Categories of Union and Confederate Soldiers. Ohio Men Drafted for Military Service Who Reported for Duty or Hired Substitutes. Tables . Denominational Shares (%) of Religious Adherents in the United States, 1776 and 1850. Outfitting a Party of Four for the Overland Trail. Nativity of Residents of the Boston Area, 1860. U.S. Population, by Nativity and Race, for Regions, 1830–1860. Comparison of Black and White Household Structure in 27 Cotton-Belt Counties. Estimates of Railroad Crossties Used and Acres of Forest Cleared, 1870–1910. National and International Union Members of the National Labor Union. Features. Interpreting History. “These Gods That We Worship Give Us Everything We Need.” Anne Bradstreet: “The Tenth Muse, Lately Sprung Up in America.” “Marry or do not marry.” “Releese Us Out of This Cruell Bondegg.” “Pastures Can Be Found Almost Anywhere”: Joshua von Kocherthal Recruits Germans to Carolina. “Exert Your Selves This Once in Our Favour”: Petition Signed by 30 North Carolina Regulators, October 4, 1768. “Revoking Those Sacred Trusts Which Are Violated”: A Declaration Signed by 15 Grand Jury Members in South Carolina, May 1776. Demobilization: “Turned Adrift Like Old Worn-Out Horses.” A Sailmaker Discusses “Means for the Preservation of Public Liberty” on the Fourth of July, 1797. Cherokee Women Petition Against Further Land Sales to Whites in 1817. José Agustin de Escudero Describes New Mexico as a Land of Opportunity, 1827. Senator John C. Calhoun Warns Against Incorporating Mexico into the United States. Professor Howe on the Subordination of Women. A Virginia Slaveholder Objects to the Impressment of Slaves. A Southern Labor Contract. Connecting History. Lost at Sea. Wind Power: Traditional and Novel. Homeland Security and Deep Fears of the Enemy Within. Reparations for Slavery? Sounds Around Us: The Lost World of High Fidelity. Movement Building Against the Odds. Uncanny Similarities: Britain’s Vietnam. Equal Representation? Civil Liberties Under Siege During Wartime and Other National Crises. Revolutions in Transportation. The Strange Career of the Monroe Doctrine. Diasporas. Systems of Unfree Labor. Civil Disorders During Wartime. Two Presidents Impeached. Mapping History. The American Bottom, Where Three Rivers Meet. New York Harbor: Quiet Bay to Global Port. Southeastern Arizona. The Coastal Lowcountry and the Sea Islands . Comanchería—The Lower Great Plains. Lake Erie and Vicinity. The Kennebec River Valley. Beyond the Cumberland Gap: Eastern Tennessee and Kentucky. The Delaware Valley. The Missouri River. Rhode Island and Eastern Massachusetts. The Columbia and Willamette River Valleys. California-Nevada Mining Region. Virginia’s Civil War Battlefields. Great Lake Salt Basin.