Ultra-Low Energy Wireless Sensor Networks in Practice: Theory, Realization and Deployment

Finally a book on Wireless Sensor Networks that covers real world applications and contains practical advice! Kuorilehto et al. have written the first  practical guide to wireless sensor networks. The authors draw on their experience in the development and field-testing of autonomous wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to offer a comprehensive reference on fundamentals, practical matters, limitations and solutions of this fast moving research area. Ultra Low Energy Wireless Sensor Networks in Practice: Explains the essential problems and issues in real wireless sensor networks, and analyzes the most promising solutions. Provides a comprehensive guide to applications, functionality, protocols, and algorithms for WSNs. Offers practical experiences from new applications and their field-testing, including several deployed networks. Includes simulations and physical measurements for energy consumption, bit rate, latency, memory, and lifetime. Covers embedded resource-limited operating systems, middleware and application software. Ultra Low Energy Wireless Sensor Networks in Practice will prove essential reading for Research Scientists, advanced students in Networking, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science as well as Product Managers and Design Engineers.

Table of Contents:
Preface xiii List of Abbreviations xv PART I INTRODUCTION 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Overview of Wireless Technologies 3 1.2 TUTWSN 5 1.3 Contents of the Book 6 PART II DESIGN SPACE OF WSNS 7 2 WSN Properties 9 2.1 Characteristics of WSNs 9 2.2 WSN Applications 11 2.2.1 Commercial WSNs 12 2.2.2 Research WSNs 14 2.3 Requirements for WSNs 16 3 Standards and Proposals 19 3.1 Standards 19 3.1.1 IEEE 1451 Standard 19 3.1.2 IEEE 802.15 Standard 21 3.2 Variations of Standards 28 3.2.1 Wibree 28 3.2.2 Z-Wave 28 3.2.3 MiWi 28 4 Sensor Node Platforms 29 4.1 Platform Components 29 4.1.1 Communication Subsystem 30 4.1.2 Computing Subsystem 33 4.1.3 Sensing Subsystem 33 4.1.4 Power Subsystem 34 4.2 Existing Platforms 36 4.3 TUTWSN Platforms 39 4.3.1 Temperature-sensing Platform 39 4.3.2 SoC Node Prototype 43 4.3.3 Ethernet Gateway Prototype 44 4.4 Antenna Design 46 4.4.1 Antenna Design Flow 46 4.4.2 Planar Antenna Types 48 4.4.3 Trade-Offs in Antenna Design 49 5 Design of WSNs 51 5.1 Design Dimensions 51 5.2 WSN Design Flow 54 5.3 Related Research on WSN Design 56 5.3.1 WSN Design Methodologies 56 5.4 WSN Evaluation Methods 60 5.5 WSN Evaluation Tools 61 5.5.1 Networking Oriented Simulators for WSN 61 5.5.2 Sensor Node Simulators 62 5.5.3 Analysis of Evaluation Tools 63 PART III WSN PROTOCOL STACK 67 6 Protocol Stack Overview 69 6.1 Outline of WSN Stack 69 6.1.1 Physical Layer 70 6.1.2 Data Link Layer 71 6.1.3 Network Layer 71 6.1.4 Transport Layer 71 6.1.5 Application Layer 72 7 MAC Protocols 73 7.1 Requirements 73 7.2 General MAC Approaches 75 7.2.1 Contention Protocols 75 7.2.2 Contention-free Protocols 77 7.2.3 Multichannel Protocols 78 7.3 WSN MAC Protocols 80 7.3.1 Synchronized Low Duty-cycle Protocols 80 7.3.2 Unsynchronized Low Duty-cycle Protocols 85 7.3.3 Wake-up Radio Protocols 87 7.3.4 Summary 88 8 Routing Protocols 91 8.1 Requirements 91 8.2 Classifications 92 8.3 Operation Principles 93 8.3.1 Nodecentric Routing 93 8.3.2 Data-centric Routing 94 8.3.3 Location-based Routing 95 8.3.4 Multipath Routing 97 8.3.5 Negotiation-based Routing 97 8.3.6 Query-based Routing 98 8.3.7 Cost Field-based Routing 99 8.4 Summary 101 9 Middleware and Application Layer 103 9.1 Motivation and Requirements 103 9.2 WSN Middleware Approaches 105 9.3 WSN Middleware Proposals 106 9.3.1 Interfaces 106 9.3.2 Virtual Machines 107 9.3.3 Database Middlewares 107 9.3.4 Mobile Agent Middlewares 108 9.3.5 Application-driven Middlewares 108 9.3.6 Programming Abstractions 109 9.3.7 WSN Middleware Analysis 110 10 Operating Systems 115 10.1 Motivation and Requirements 115 10.1.1 OS Services and Requirements 116 10.1.2 Implementation Approaches 117 10.2 Existing OSs 119 10.2.1 Event-handler OSs 120 10.2.2 Preemptive Multithreading OSs 121 10.2.3 Analysis 121 11 QoS Issues in WSN 125 11.1 Traditional QoS 125 11.2 Unique Requirements in WSNs 125 11.3 Parameters Defining WSN QoS 126 11.4 QoS Support in Protocol Layers 128 11.4.1 Application Layer 128 11.4.2 Transport Layer 128 11.4.3 Network Layer 129 11.4.4 Data Link Layer 130 11.4.5 Physical Layer 131 11.5 Summary 131 12 Security in WSNs 133 12.1 WSN Security Threats and Countermeasures 133 12.1.1 Passive Attacks 134 12.1.2 Active Attacks 134 12.2 Security Architectures for WSNs 135 12.2.1 TinySec 135 12.2.2 SPINS 136 12.2.3 IEEE 802.15.4 Security 136 12.2.4 ZigBee Security 137 12.2.5 Bluetooth Security 139 12.3 Key Distribution in WSNs 140 12.3.1 Public-key Cryptography 140 12.3.2 Pre-distributed Keys 140 12.3.3 Centralized Key Distribution 141 12.4 Summary of WSN Security Considerations 142 PART IV TUTWSN 143 13 TUTWSN MAC Protocol 145 13.1 Network Topology 145 13.2 Channel Access 147 13.3 Frequency Division 149 13.4 Advanced Mobility Support 152 13.4.1 Proactive Distribution of Neighbor Information 153 13.4.2 Neighbor-discovery Algorithm 154 13.4.3 Measured Performance of ENDP Protocol 158 13.5 Advanced Support for Bursty Traffic 159 13.5.1 Slot Reservations within a Superframe 160 13.5.2 On-demand Slot Reservation 161 13.5.3 Traffic-adaptive Slot Reservation 161 13.5.4 Performance Analysis 162 13.6 TUTWSN MAC Optimization 165 13.6.1 Reducing Radio Requirements 165 13.6.2 Network Beacon Rate Optimization 170 13.7 TUTWSN MAC Implementation 179 13.8 Measured Performance of TUTWSN MAC 180 14 TUTWSN Routing Protocol 183 14.1 Design and Implementation 183 14.2 Related Work 183 14.3 Cost-Aware Routing 184 14.3.1 Sink-initiated Route Establishment 185 14.3.2 Node-initiated Route Discovery 185 14.3.3 Traffic Classification 186 14.4 Implementation 187 14.4.1 Protocol Architecture 187 14.4.2 Implementation on TUTWSN MAC 188 14.5 Measurement Results 188 14.5.1 Network Parameter Configuration 189 14.5.2 Network Build-up Time 189 14.5.3 Distribution of Traffic 190 14.5.4 End-to-end Delays 192 15 TUTWSN API 193 15.1 Design of TUTWSN API 194 15.1.1 Gateway API 194 15.1.2 Node API 196 15.2 TUTWSN API Implementation 197 15.2.1 Gateway API 198 15.2.2 Node API 198 15.3 TUTWSN API Evaluation 200 15.3.1 Ease of Use 200 15.3.2 Resource Consumption 200 15.3.3 Operational Performance 201 16 TUTWSN SensorOS 203 16.1 SensorOS Design 203 16.1.1 SensorOS Architecture 204 16.1.2 OS Components 204 16.2 SensorOS Implementation 206 16.2.1 HAL Implementation 206 16.2.2 Component Implementation 207 16.3 SensorOS Performance Evaluation 210 16.3.1 Resource Usage 210 16.3.2 Context Switch Performance 210 16.4 Lightweight Kernel Configuration 211 16.4.1 Lightweight OS Architecture and Implementation 211 16.4.2 Performance Evaluation 212 16.5 SensorOS Bootloader Service 213 16.5.1 SensorOS Bootloader Design Principles 213 16.5.2 Bootloader Implementation 213 17 Cross-layer Issues in TUTWSN 217 17.1 Cross-layer Node Configuration 217 17.1.1 Application Layer 219 17.1.2 Routing Layer 219 17.1.3 MAC Layer 219 17.1.4 Physical Layer 220 17.1.5 Configuration Examples 220 17.2 Piggybacking Data 223 17.3 Self-configuration with Cross-layer Information 224 17.3.1 Frequency and TDMA Selection 224 17.3.2 Connectivity Maintenance 224 17.3.3 Role Selection 225 18 Protocol Analysis Models 227 18.1 PHY Power Analysis 227 18.2 Radio Energy Models 229 18.2.1 TUTWSN Radio Energy Models 230 18.2.2 ZigBee Radio Energy Models 232 18.3 Contention Models 234 18.3.1 TUTWSN Contention Models 234 18.3.2 ZigBee Contention Models 235 18.4 Node Operation Models 238 18.4.1 TUTWSN Throughput Models 238 18.4.2 ZigBee Throughput Models 239 18.4.3 TUTWSN Power Consumption Models 240 18.4.4 ZigBee Power Consumption Models 243 18.5 Summary 245 19 WISENES Design and Evaluation Environment 247 19.1 Features 247 19.2 WSN Design with WISENES 248 19.3 WISENES Framework 249 19.3.1 Short Introduction to SDL 251 19.3.2 WISENES Instantiation 252 19.3.3 Central Simulation Control 253 19.3.4 Transmission Medium 253 19.3.5 Sensing Channel 254 19.3.6 Sensor Node 254 19.4 Existing WISENES Designs 256 19.4.1 TUTWSN Stack 258 19.4.2 ZigBee Stack 260 19.5 WISENES Simulation Results 263 19.5.1 Simulated Node Platforms 264 19.5.2 Accuracy of Simulation Results 266 19.5.3 Protocol Comparison Simulations 268 PART V DEPLOYMENT 277 20 TUTWSN Deployments 279 20.1 TUTWSN Deployment Architecture 280 20.1.1 WSN Server 281 20.1.2 WSN and Gateway 282 20.1.3 Database 282 20.1.4 User Interfaces 282 20.2 Network Self-diagnostics 283 20.2.1 Problem Statement 283 20.2.2 Implementation 284 20.3 Security Experiments 290 20.3.1 Experimental KDC-based Key Distribution and Authentication Scheme 291 20.3.2 Implementation Experiments 291 21 Sensing Applications 293 21.1 Linear-position Metering 293 21.1.1 Problem Statement 293 21.1.2 Implementation 294 21.1.3 Results 296 21.2 Indoor-temperature Sensing 297 21.2.1 WSN Node Design 298 21.2.2 Results 298 21.3 Environmental Monitoring 300 21.3.1 Problem Statement 300 21.3.2 Implementation 300 21.3.3 Results 306 22 Transfer Applications 313 22.1 TCP/IP for TUTWSN 313 22.1.1 Problem Statement 313 22.1.2 Implementation 314 22.1.3 Results 316 22.2 Realtime High-performance WSN 318 22.2.1 Problem Statement 318 22.2.2 Implementation 318 22.2.3 Results 324 23 Tracking Applications 327 23.1 Surveillance System 327 23.1.1 Problem Statement 328 23.1.2 Surveillance WSN Design 328 23.1.3 WSN Prototype Implementation 331 23.1.4 Surveillance WSN Implementation on TUTWSN Prototypes 332 23.2 Indoor Positioning 334 23.2.1 Problem Statement 335 23.2.2 Implementation 335 23.3 Team Game Management 342 23.3.1 Problem Statement 343 23.3.2 Implementation 343 23.3.3 Example Application Scenario 345 PART VI CONCLUSIONS 349 24 Conclusions 351 References 353 Index 369