Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice

Current perspectives on approaches to problem structuring in operational research and engineering and prospects for problem structuring methods applicable to a wide range of practice. Bridging between operational research (OR) and engineering practice, Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice is grounded in the emergence of soft OR and its development over time as a distinctively new field, broadening the scope of OR to deal with issues of transforming, strategising, and planning in the context of wicked problems. The book is centred on a methodological framing of intervention processes known as problem structuring methods (PSMs) and the techniques presented are suitable for practitioners across a broad range of disciplines. Written by a highly qualified professor of engineering and management, Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice contains four linked sections that cover: I. Problem formulation when dealing with wicked problems, justification for a methodological approach, the emergence of soft OR, the relevance of pragmatic philosophy to OR practice. II. Traces debates and issues in OR leading to the emergence of soft OR, comparative analysis of PSMs leading to a generic framework for soft OR practice, addressing practical considerations in delivering PSM interventions. III. Charts the emergence of a problem structuring sensibility in engineering practice, introduces a new PSM based on hierarchical process modelling (HPM) supported by teaching and case studies, makes the case for a processual turn in engineering practice supported by HPM with relevance to OR practice. IV. Evaluation of PSM interventions, survey of applications, use of group support systems, new developments supported by machine learning, recontextualising soft OR practice. Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice is a thought-provoking and highly valuable resource relevant to all “students of problems.” It is suitable for any UK Level 7 (or equivalent) programme in OR, engineering, or applied social science where a reflective, methodological approach to dealing with wicked problems is an essential requirement for practice.

Table of Contents:
Preface xiii Acknowledgements xxi Glossary xxv Section I The Problem of Problem Formulation 1 1 Origins 3 1.1 Why Methodology? 3 1.2 Why Not Problem-solving? 4 1.3 From Puzzles, Problems, to Messes 7 1.4 The Apparent Success of Operational Research 10 1.5 The Process of Problematisation 11 1.6 Problem Structuring Methods 13 1.7 Summary 15 2 Wicked and Messy Problems 17 2.1 On Dichotomies 17 2.2 Wicked and Tame 18 2.3 Swamps and High Ground 22 2.4 Problems and Messes 24 2.5 An Ontological Viewpoint 25 2.5.1 Cynefin 26 2.5.2 Wickedness and Anatomy of Complexity 26 2.5.3 The System of Systems Methodologies 28 2.6 The Burrell and Morgan Framework 29 2.7 Category Mistakes and Paradigm Incommensurability 31 3 A Pragmatic Framing 33 3.1 Dichotomies, Again 33 3.2 Organised Finding Out 35 3.3 Action Is Knowledge 41 3.4 Ways Forward 42 Section II Problem Structuring Methods 45 4 The Emergence of PSMs – A History 47 4.1 The Critique of the Mainstream OR Phase: Emergence of a New Paradigm 49 4.2 The Methodological Phase: Emergence of Core Methodologies 53 4.3 First Reflective Period 57 4.4 Summary 58 5 Comparison of Core Methods 61 5.1 Analysis of the Three Core Techniques 61 5.2 Constitutive Rules 64 5.3 Epistemologies 66 5.4 Comparative Affordances of Modelling Approaches 70 5.5 A Processual Analysis of Modelling in the Core Methodologies 76 5.5.1 SSM 76 5.5.2 SODA Project 79 5.5.3 SCA 83 5.6 Summary of Core Modelling Approaches 86 5.7 The Influence of Computer-supported Modelling 87 5.8 Related Approaches 87 5.8.1 IBIS 87 5.8.2 Causal Loop Diagrams 88 5.9 Conclusion 93 6 The Practice of Problem Structuring 95 6.1 Recap 95 6.2 Establishing a Trust Relationship 97 6.3 Dealing with the Value Paradox 99 6.4 Identifying Relevant Stakeholders and Dealing with Multi-organisational Contexts 103 6.5 Being Ready to Facilitate 106 6.6 Ethical Practice 109 6.7 Relation to the Wider PSM Field 109 6.8 Summary 110 6.9 State of the Art 112 Section III Problem Structuring in Engineering Practice 113 7 Developing a Problem Structuring Sensibility in Engineering 115 7.1 Introduction 115 7.2 From Systems Engineering to Soft Systems Methodology – and Back Again 116 7.3 Philosophy of Engineering 121 7.4 A New Definition of Soft Systems for Engineers 122 7.5 Systems Engineering in the Context of Systemic Cooperation 124 7.6 Conclusions 128 8 On the Theoretical Foundations of Systems Engineering 131 9 Hierarchical Process Modelling 135 9.1 Motivation 135 9.2 Origins 136 9.3 What Is HPM as a PSM? 138 9.3.1 Process Epistemology 139 9.3.2 Modelling Purpose 140 9.3.3 How/Why Modelling Dialectic 141 9.3.4 Measuring Process Performance with Explicit Representation of Uncertainty 142 9.3.5 Argumentation 148 9.4 Epistemology for HPM 148 9.5 The Affordance of the HPM Approach 150 9.6 Assembling into a Methodology 153 10 Practical Aspects for Using HPM as a PSM 155 10.1 Case Study I –STEEP and REPLICATE Projects 155 10.2 Updating the Tool Support for the Modelling Approach 159 10.3 Teaching Example I – ‘SuperCo’ 162 10.4 Teaching Example II – Servitisation and the Circular Economy 167 10.5 Teaching Example III – Heritage Railway MEng Consulting Project 167 10.6 Case Study II – ‘Continuous Process Manufacturing Company’ 169 10.7 Case Study III – Healthy Resilient Cities 171 10.7.1 Workshop 175 10.7.2 Key Findings from the Project 179 10.7.3 Selling the Approach as a Commercial Service 180 10.7.4 Infrastructure Interdependency 181 10.8 Conclusions 182 11 Problem Structuring in Engineering Practice 185 11.1 Introduction 186 11.2 Anticipation, Injunctions and Translations 186 11.3 Widening Participation and Broadening the Scope 188 11.4 Moving Away from Singular Outcomes 190 11.5 Working with Multiple Viewpoints 190 11.6 Being Aware of Conceptual Limitations 191 11.7 Valuing Process Knowledge 191 Section IV Evolution 195 12 Evaluation 197 12.1 Why Wait Until Now? 197 13 Survey of PSM Applications 203 13.1 Introduction 203 13.2 Method of Selection 203 13.3 Classification of PSM Applications 206 13.4 Survey of PSM Applications by Subject Area 206 13.5 Observations 212 13.6 Interdisciplinarity 214 13.7 Other Traditions 217 13.8 Conclusions 218 14 Digital Transformation Through Group Support Systems (gss) 221 14.1 Motivation 221 14.2 Experimental Setting 223 14.3 Teaching Requirements 225 14.4 Reflections 230 14.5 The Effectiveness of Online Problem Structuring Practice 232 14.6 Teaching of PSMs in an Education Setting 234 14.7 Extension to Large Group Working 235 15 New Technologies for Augmenting PSM Practice 239 15.1 Augmented Qualitative Analysis (AQA) 239 15.2 PSMs in the Age of LLMs 244 15.3 Future Directions 251 16 Setting the Agenda 253 16.1 Building Links 254 16.1.1 Towards New Disciplinary Partners in Applied Social Science 254 16.1.2 Towards Mainstream OR 257 16.2 Education 264 16.3 Introducing a Processual Turn in OR 268 Grant and Project Funding 271 Selected Bookshelf 273 References 275 Index 317