An Introduction to Behavior Analysis

AN INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Explore a fascinating introductory treatment of the principles of behavior analysis written by three leading voices in the field An Introduction to Behavior Analysis delivers an engaging and comprehensive introduction to the concepts and applications for graduate students of behavior analysis. Written from the ground up to capture and hold student interest, the book keeps its focus on practical issues. The book offers readers sound analyses of Pavlovian and operant learning, reinforcement and punishment, motivation and stimulus control, language and rule-following, decision-making and clinical behavior analysis. With fully up to date empirical research references and theoretical content, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis thoroughly justifies every principle it describes with empirical support and explicitly points out where more data are required. The text encourages students to analyze their own experiences and some foundational findings in the field in a way that minimizes jargon and maximizes engagement. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of: A clear articulation and defense of the philosophical assumptions and overarching goals of behavior analysis. A thorough description of objective data collection, experimental methods, and data analysis in the context of psychology An exploration of the core principles of behavior analysis, presented at a level comprehensible to an introductory audience A broad array of principles that cover issues as varied as language, substance-use disorders, and common psychological disorders Perfect for students taking their first course in behavior analysis or behavior modification, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis will also earn a place in the libraries of students pursuing certification through the Behavior Analysis Certification Board or taking courses in the applied psychological sciences.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv 1 An Introduction to Behavior Analysis 1 What Is Behavior? 1 What Is Behavior Analysis? 3 The Goals of Behavior Analysis 3 The First Goal of Behavior Analysis 3 The Second Goal of Behavior Analysis 5 Demand More of Your Science 5 Reading Quiz 1 6 The Assumptions of Behavior Analysis 6 Assumption #1: Behavior is determined 6 Mentalistic Explanations of Behavior 7 I’m Not Buying It. I Determine My Own Behavior 8 Assumption #2: The scientific method is a valid way to reveal the determinants of behavior 10 Reading Quiz 2 11 Scientific Method 12 Reading Quiz 3 15 What Are the Determinants of Behavior? 15 Nature 15 Nurture 16 Behavioral Epigenetics 16 The Activities of Behavior Analysts 17 The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17 Applied Behavior Analysis 18 Behavioral Service Delivery 18 Extra Box 1: Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis 19 Organizational Behavior Management 20 Summary 20 Reading Quiz 4 20 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 20 Notes 21 References 22 2 Understanding Behavioral Research 23 Variables 24 Correlation vs Causation 24 Experiments 25 Three Components of a Behavioral Experiment 26 Reading Quiz 1 27 Measuring Behavior 27 Behavioral Definitions 28 Observable and Objective 29 Refining the Behavioral Definition 29 Social Validity of the Behavioral Definition 29 Finalizing the Behavioral Definition 30 Interobserver Agreement (IOA) 30 What IOA Is Not 31 Reading Quiz 2 31 Dimensions of Behavior 32 Frequency 32 Latency 32 Duration 32 Magnitude 33 Four Direct-Observation Methods 33 Outcome Recording 33 When to Use Outcome Recording 34 Calculating IOA When Using Outcome Recording 35 Event Recording 36 When to Use Event Recording 37 Calculating IOA When Using Event Recording 37 Interval Recording 39 When to Use Interval Recording 39 Calculating IOA When Using Partial- or Whole-Interval Recording 40 Duration Recording 41 When to Use Duration Recording 41 Calculating IOA When Using Duration Recording 41 Reading Quiz 3 42 Summary 43 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 44 Note 45 References 45 3 Experimental Designs in Behavior Analysis 47 Group Experimental Designs 49 Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51 Internal Validity of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 51 Four Types of Single-Subject Experimental Designs 52 Comparison (A-B) Design 52 Reversal (A-B-A) Design 54 Alternating-Treatments Design 55 Multiple-Baseline Designs 57 Defining Features of Single-Subject Designs 61 Three Kinds of Replication 62 Reading Quiz 1 63 Did Behavior Change? 64 Two Patterns of Behavior Change 65 What Makes a Change Convincing? 65 Guidelines for Conducting the Visual Analysis 67 What Is Responsible for the Change 71 Reading Quiz 2 72 Supplementing the Visual Analysis with Inferential Statistics 75 Summary 76 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 77 Notes 80 References 80 4 Phylogenetic Behavior and Pavlovian Learning 82 Phylogenetically Selected Behavior 83 Reflex Learning – Habituation 84 The “Nature and Nurture” Answer to the “Nature vs Nurture” Debate 85 Elicited or Evoked? 85 Reading Quiz 1 86 Pavlovian Learning 86 A Simple Pavlovian Conditioning Procedure 87 Pavlovian Conditioning of Emotions 88 Pavlovian Fear Conditioning 89 The Little Albert Experiment 90 What Became of Little Albert? 91 Fear Conditioning and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 92 Reading Quiz 2 92 What Is Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning? 93 Three Things Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning 94 Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 95 Applying these principles to PTSD 100 Reading Quiz 3 100 Generalization 101 Pavlovian Extinction-Based Therapy 103 Graduated Exposure Therapy 104 Spontaneous Recovery 105 Extra Box 1: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans 107 Reading Quiz 4 108 Pavlovian Conditioning in Everyday Life 108 Taste-Aversion Learning 109 Advertising 110 Summary 111 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 111 Notes 112 References 113 5 Operant Learning I: Reinforcement 117 Operant Behavior 117 Reading Quiz 1 118 Response–Consequence Contingencies 119 Learning Response–Consequence Contingencies 120 Noncontingent Consequences 122 Superstitious Behavior 123 Reading Quiz 2 123 Changing Behavior with Contingent Consequences 124 Extra Box 1: Noncontingent Consequences in North Korea 125 Reinforcers, Reinforcement, and Rewards 126 Reading Quiz 3 127 The Discovery of Reinforcement 127 How to Tell If a Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 128 From Puzzle Boxes to Skinner Boxes 130 Reading Quiz 4 131 Response Variability: Exploring and Exploiting 131 Extra Box 2: Add Some Variability to Your Life 132 The Generic Nature of Operant Behavior 133 Not Every Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer 134 Reading Quiz 5 134 Reinforcement in Social Media and Video Games 137 Games for Good 137 Summary 138 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 5.2 139 Notes 141 References 141 6 Operant Learning II: Positive and Negative Reinforcement 143 Positive Reinforcement 143 Positive Reinforcement in the Lab 144 Negative Reinforcement 146 Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−) 146 Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−) in the Lab 148 Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−) 148 Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−) in the Lab 150 Extra Box 1: What Is the Consequence in SRA−? 150 Reading Quiz 1 152 Positive or Negative Reinforcement: Is There Really a Difference? 153 Reason 1: Heuristics 153 Reason 2: Loss Aversion 154 Reason 3: Preference for Positive Reinforcement 155 Using Reinforcement to Positively Influence Behavior 155 Reinforcement in the Workplace 156 Three Objections to Reinforcement 157 Objection 1: Intrinsic Motivation 157 Objection 2: Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement 158 Creativity 159 Choking Under Pressure 159 Objection 3: Cheating 160 Reading Quiz 2 161 Theories of Reinforcement 161 The Response Strengthening Theory of Reinforcement 162 The Information Theory of Reinforcement 163 Evaluating the Theories 164 Reading Quiz 3 164 Summary 164 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 165 References 165 7 Extinction and Differential Reinforcement 169 Operant Extinction Following Positive Reinforcement 170 Operant Extinction Following Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction) 171 How Quickly Will Operant Extinction Work? 174 Rate of Reinforcement Prior to Extinction 174 Motivation 175 Spontaneous Recovery of Operant Behavior 175 Reading Quiz 1 176 Extra Box 1: How Extinction Informs Theories of Reinforcement 177 Other Effects of Extinction 179 Extinction-Induced Emotional Behavior 179 Extinction Burst 179 Extinction-Induced Variability 180 Extinction-Induced Resurgence 181 We Tried It at Home 183 Reading Quiz 2 183 Using Extinction to Positively Influence Behavior 184 Functional Analysis of Behavior 184 Functional Analysis of Self-Injurious Behavior 186 Differential Reinforcement 187 Differential Reinforcement of Problem Behavior 188 How to Effectively Use Differential Reinforcement 189 Differentially Reinforcing Response Topography 190 Differentially Reinforcing Rate of Operant Behavior 192 Reading Quiz 3 192 Summary 193 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 194 Note 194 References 195 8 Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement and Shaping 200 Primary Reinforcers 201 Conditioned Reinforcers 202 Pavlovian Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 202 Verbal Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers 203 The Token Economy 204 Reading Quiz 1 206 Arranging Effective Conditioned Reinforcers 207 Extra Box 1: Conditioned Reinforcers in Zoos 210 Clicker Training with Humans 211 Reading Quiz 2 212 Shaping 213 Extra Box 2: Shaping Animal Behavior on the Farm 214 Shaping Human Behavior 215 Shaping and Flow 215 Principles of Effective Shaping 217 Try It at Home: The Shaping Game 220 Reading Quiz 3 221 Automating Shaping: Percentile Schedules of Reinforcement 221 Summary 224 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 225 Notes 226 References 226 9 Motivation, Reinforcer Efficacy, and Habit Formation 229 Everyday Concepts of Motivation 230 From Motivation to Motivating Operations 232 Two Kinds of Motivating Operations 232 Examples of EOs 233 Examples of AOs 234 Motivating Operations Require Response-Reinforcer Contingency Learning 234 The Therapeutic Utility of Motivating Operations 235 Extra Box 1: The Cost of Mentalistic Reasoning 236 Reading Quiz 1 237 Identifying Effective Reinforcers: The “Liking” Strategy 237 Reinforcer Surveys 238 Stimulus Preference Assessments 239 Extra Box 2: Avoiding Circularity – The Premack Principle 241 Reading Quiz 2 243 Measuring Reinforcer Efficacy 243 Dimensions of Effective Reinforcers 245 Contingency 245 Reinforcer Size 245 Reinforcer Quality 246 Reinforcer Immediacy 246 Summary 248 Habit Formation 248 Habits – What Are They and How Are They Formed 248 Our Everyday Habits 250 Replacing Bad Habits with Good Ones 250 Reading Quiz 3 252 Summary 252 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 253 Notes 254 References 254 10 Punishment 258 Punishers and Punishment 259 Two Kinds of Punishment – Both Decrease Behavior 261 Positive Punishment 262 Negative Punishment 263 Reading Quiz 1 264 When Should We Punish? 264 Extra Box 1: Punishment Is the Norm – Using It Effectively Is Humane 265 Six Characteristics of Effective Punishment Interventions 266 1. Focus on Reinforcement First 267 2. Combine Punishment with Extinction and/or Differential Reinforcement 267 3. Deliver Punishers Immediately 268 4. Deliver Punishment Contingently 269 5. Punish Every Time 269 6. Use a Punisher in the Goldilocks Zone 270 Reading Quiz 2 271 Primary and Conditioned Punishment 272 Arranging Effective Conditioned Punishers 273 Some Commonly Used Punishers 274 Time-Out from Positive Reinforcement 274 Response-Cost Punishment 276 The Watchful Eye of the Punisher 277 The Role of Reinforcement in the Act of Punishing 279 Reading Quiz 3 280 Summary 281 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 282 Note 283 References 283 11 Complex Contingencies of Reinforcement 289 Schedules of Reinforcement 290 Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement 291 Fixed-Ratio Schedules 292 Variable-Ratio Schedules 295 The Behavioral Economics of Ratio Schedules 297 The Underappreciated VR Schedule 298 Reading Quiz 1 301 Interval Schedules of Reinforcement 302 Fixed-Interval Schedules 302 Variable-Interval Schedules 304 Putting it All Together 306 Reading Quiz 2 307 Why Study Schedules of Reinforcement? 308 Extra Box 1: Contingency Management 309 Schedule Thinning 310 Scheduling Reinforcers to Enhance Human Performance and Happiness 312 Reading Quiz 3 313 Summary 313 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Tables 11.1–11.4 314 Notes 315 References 316 12 Antecedent Stimulus Control 321 Phylogenetic and Pavlovian Stimulus Control 322 Discriminated Operant Behavior 322 The Discriminative Stimulus (SD) 324 The SΔ 325 The SDp 325 The Three-term Contingency 327 Reading Quiz 1 327 Discriminative Stimuli and Establishing Operations 329 Discrimination Training 330 Effective Methods of Discrimination Training 330 Using Discrimination Training to Positively Influence Behavior 331 Extra Box 1: Direct Instruction of Reading Skills 333 Generalization 334 Using Discrimination Training to Improve Stimulus Control 336 Promoting Generalization and Maintenance 337 Tactic 1: Teach Behaviors That Will Contact Natural Contingencies of Reinforcement 338 Tactic 2: Train Diversely 338 Tactic 3: Arrange Antecedent Stimuli That Will Cue Generalization 338 Reading Quiz 2 339 Stimulus-Response Chains 340 Teaching Stimulus-Response Chains 341 Prompting and Fading 342 Extra Box 2: Consciousness 343 Reading Quiz 3 345 Summary 345 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 346 References 347 13 Choice 351 What Is Choice? 352 Four Variables Affecting Choice 352 Reinforcement vs. No Consequence 353 Reinforcer Size/Quality 353 Effort 354 Reinforcer Delay 355 Summary 355 Reading Quiz 1 356 The Rich Uncle Joe Experiment 356 Choosing between Uncertain Outcomes 357 Herrnstein’s Matching Equation 358 More Uncertainty 358 Research Support for Herrnstein’s Equation 361 Reading Quiz 2 362 Extra Box 1: The Matching Law, Terrorism, and White Nationalism 364 Substitutes 366 Extra Box 2: What Substitutes for Drug Reinforcers? 367 Using the Matching Law to Positively Influence Behavior 368 The Matching Law and Attention 370 Summary 371 Reading Quiz 3 372 Impulsivity and Self-Control 372 Predicting Impulsive Choice 373 Predicting Preference Reversals 376 Influencing Impulsive Choice 377 Commitment Strategies 378 Delay-Exposure Training 380 Reading Quiz 4 380 Summary 380 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 13.3 381 Notes 385 References 385 14 Verbal Behavior, Rule-Following, and Clinical Behavior Analysis 390 Behavioral Approaches to Language 391 Skinner’s Functional Taxonomy of Speaker Behavior 391 Echoic 392 Mand 392 Tact 392 Intraverbal 393 Training Verbal Operants 393 Reading Quiz 1 394 The Behavior of the Listener 395 Expanding the Verbal Repertoire 398 Verbal Behavior and Emotions 399 Reading Quiz 2 400 Rules and Rule-Governed Behavior 401 Why Follow the Rules? 402 Pliance 402 Tracking 403 Persistently Following Incorrect Rules 404 Are We Hopelessly Compliant? 405 The Dark Side of Tracking 406 Reading Quiz 3 407 Breaking the Rules in Clinical Psychology 408 Extra Box 1: If Thoughts Are Important, Prepare to Suffer 410 The “Acceptance” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 411 The “Commitment” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 412 Does ACT Work? 413 Further Reading 413 Reading Quiz 4 413 Summary 414 Answers to Reading Quiz Questions 415 Notes 417 References 417 Appendix 421 Glossary 423 Author Index 432 Subject Index 437