Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus: Advanced Biosensors for Pandemic Viruses and Related Pathogens

Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus Detecting and analyzing the COVID-19 pandemic with biosensor technology The highly contagious SARS CoV-2 pathogen has challenged health systems around the world as they struggle to detect and monitor the spread of the pathogen. In Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus: Advanced Biosensors for Pandemic Viruses and Related Pathogens expert chemists Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Sudheesh K. Shukla deliver a practical analysis of how contactless coronavirus detectors may be developed using existing biosensor technology. The editors outline current challenges in the field, the bioanalytical principles for coronavirus detection, and available biosensor technology. They then move on to how available technology might be adapted to detect coronaviruses and how commercialization of the technology might unfold. The lessons learned in this book are readily applicable to the study of other current and emerging pathogens. Readers will also enjoy: A thorough introduction to the current diagnostic approaches for COVID-19, including common challenges, technology adaptation, and future potential An exploration of bio-analytical strategies for SARS CoV-2/COVID-19, including COVID detection via nanotechnology, biosensing approaches, and the role of nanotechnology in coronavirus detection Practical discussions of biosensors for the analysis of SARS CoV-2/COVID-19, including sensor development for coronavirus and chemical sensors for coronavirus diagnosis In-depth treatments of the commercialization and standardization for analytical technologies Perfect for virologists, pharmaceutical industry professionals, and sensor developers, Detection and Analysis of SARS Coronavirus is also an indispensable resource for those working in analytical research institutes, biotechnology industry professionals, and public health agency professionals.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv About the Editors xvii Part I Introduction 1 1 Current Diagnostic Approach for COVID-19 3 Nitika Thakur and Rachit Sood 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Recommended Laboratory Diagnosis for COVID-19 3 1.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Detection Approach by Screening Suitable Specimen Cultures 3 1.2.2 SARS-CoV-2 Detection: The Nucleic Acid Approach 4 1.2.2.1 COVID-19 Detection Approach Through Real-Time PCR 4 1.2.2.2 Detection Approach Through Nested RT-PCR 5 1.2.2.3 Detection and Analysis Approach via Droplet Digital PCR 6 1.2.2.4 Lab-on-chip Approaches Using Nucleic Acid as Chief Target Points 6 1.2.2.5 Analysis Through Nanoparticle Amplification Process 7 1.2.2.6 Portable Methodology: The Concept of Benchtop-Sized Analyzer 7 1.3 Antigenic Approach for COVID-19 Diagnosis 8 1.4 Antibody Diagnostic Strategies for Detection of COVID-19 10 1.4.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Strategies: The Vircell and Euroimmun ELISA 11 1.4.2 Immunoassay-Based Detection Approach: Immunofluorescence and Chemiluminescence Assay 11 1.5 Point-of-care/Lab-on-chip Approaches: The LFA (Lateral Flow Assay) 12 1.6 Miniaturization Detection Approach: Combining Microarray with Microfluidic Chip Technology 12 1.7 Neutralization Detection Approaches Toward COVID-19 13 1.8 Genomic Sequencing Detection Approach: The Amplicon, Hybrid Capture, and Meta-transcriptomic Strategy 13 1.9 Conclusion 14 References 14 2 COVID-19 Diagnostics: Current Approach, Challenges, and Technology Adaptation 23 Prama Bhattacherjee, Santanu Patra, Abhishek Mishra, Trupti R. Das, Hemlata Dewangan, Rajgourab Ghosh, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Anshuman Mishra 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Diagnosis of COVID-19 25 2.2.1 Clinical Diagnosis 25 2.2.2 Sample Collection and Testing 26 2.3 Understanding Genetic Consequences 27 2.3.1 SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Database 27 2.3.2 Infection and Genetic Diagnosis 27 2.3.3 Real-Time PCR 27 2.4 Understanding Immunological Consequences 28 2.4.1 Role of Immunological Test 28 2.4.2 Rapid Antigen Testing 29 2.4.3 Rapid Antibody Tests 29 2.5 Protein Testing 29 2.5.1 Computed Tomography 29 2.6 Challenges 30 2.6.1 Challenges of Developing COVID-19 Tests 30 2.6.2 Sample Collection and Tests 31 2.7 Advanced Diagnosis Technologies and Adaptation 31 2.8 Adaptation of a New Approach 31 2.8.1 Emerging Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 33 2.8.2 Role of siRNA, Nanoparticle Toward COVID-19 33 2.8.3 RT-LAMP Nucleic Acid Testing 34 2.8.4 Point-of-care Testing 34 2.8.5 FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay 34 2.8.6 Development of a Novel Technology for COVID-19 Rapid Test 34 2.8.7 Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter Unlocking 35 2.9 Digital Healthcare Technologies 35 2.9.1 Artificial Intelligence and Mass Healthcare 36 2.9.2 Standard Healthcare Management During Pandemic Crisis 36 2.10 Implications of Technology-Based Diagnosis and Testing 36 2.10.1 Benefit of Diagnosis 37 2.11 Conclusion 37 2.12 Future Prospects 38 Acknowledgment 39 References 39 3 Current Scenario of Pandemic COVID-19: Overview, Diagnosis, and Future Prospective 43 Bindu Mangla, Shinu Chauhan, Shreya Kathuria, Prashant, Mohit, Meenakshi, Santanu Patra, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Diagnosis and Treatment 47 3.3 Infection and Control 49 3.4 Current Status of COVID-19 50 3.5 Recommendation 51 3.6 Conclusion 52 References 53 Part II Bio-analytical Strategies for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 57 4 COVID Detection via Nanotechnology: A Promising Field in the Diagnosis and Analysis of Novel Coronavirus Infection 59 Nitika Thakur, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery M. Hussain 4.1 Introduction 59 4.1.1 Pandemic Outbreak of COVID-19: A Tour Around the Globe from Wuhan 59 4.1.2 Nanotech Solutions for Faster Detection Analysis of COVID-19 60 4.2 Methodologies from Lab to People: Advantages of Nanovaccines in Providing Point-of-care Diagnosis 60 4.3 An Overview: The Potential Strategies Related to Nanotechnology for Combating COVID-19 61 4.3.1 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Reverse Transcriptase Coupling with Nanobiosensors 62 4.3.2 Nanopoint-of-care/Lab-on-chip Diagnosis: A Strategy to Reach out the Resource-Poor Areas 63 4.3.3 Tagging up the Biosensor with Optics for Reducing the Long Detection Time 63 4.3.4 Sequencing Strategy Involving the Nanopore-Assisted Target Sequencing (NTS) 63 4.4 Screening of Potential Agents for Restricting the Rapid Spread of COVID-19 64 4.5 Potential New Generation Vaccines: A Journey from Nucleoside, Subunit, Peptide Analogs to Nanoformulation 65 4.5.1 Nucleoside Analog Vaccines: Searching Potential Candidates Among DNA, RNA, and mRNA 65 4.5.2 Nano-VLP Subunit Vaccines: A Stable and Ordered Vaccine Complex 67 4.5.3 Nanopeptide-Based Vaccines: “Hitchhiking Through Albumin” 68 4.6 Future Prospective: Resolving the Big Pandemics 68 4.7 Conclusion 69 References 69 5 Biosensing Approach for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 75 Varun Rawat, Sonam, Diksha Gahlot, Kritika Nagpal, and Seema R. Pathak 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 SARS-COVID-19 Structure and Genome 76 5.3 SARS-COVID-19 Sensors 77 5.3.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 77 5.3.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 78 5.3.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 79 5.3.4 eCovSens 79 5.3.5 CRISPR/Cas12 80 5.3.6 DNA Nanoscaffold Hybrid Chain Reaction (DNHCR)-Based Fluorescence Biosensor 81 5.4 Biomarkers 83 5.5 Conclusion 84 References 84 6 Role of Nanotechnology in Coronavirus Detection 87 AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Bashir Adelodun, Hashim O. Bakare, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Kola Y. Kareem, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, and Jamiu A. Adeniran 6.1 Introduction 87 6.2 Application of Nanomaterials 88 6.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 88 6.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles 88 6.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 89 6.3 Nanotechnology and Application in Medicine 90 6.3.1 Biobarriers 90 6.3.2 Molecular Imaging 90 6.3.3 Early Detection 91 6.3.4 Nanodiagnostics 91 6.4 Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection 92 6.4.1 Biosensors 93 6.4.2 Nano-Based Biosensors 93 6.5 Coronavirus Detection 93 6.5.1 Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection 94 6.5.2 Nano-Based Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 95 6.6 Emerging Concerns on COVID-19 96 6.6.1 Nanotechnology in COVID-19 ContaminatedWater 97 6.7 Nanotoxicity 98 6.8 Conclusion 98 References 99 Part III Biosensors for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 105 7 Sensor Development for Coronavirus 107 Ranjita D. Tandel, Nagappa L. Teradal, and Sudheesh K. Shukla 7.1 Introduction 107 7.2 Conclusions 118 7.3 Future Perspectives 119 References 119 8 Chemical Sensor for the Diagnosis of Coronavirus 123 Gyandshwar K. Rao, Ashish K. Sengar, and Seema R. Pathak 8.1 Introduction 123 8.2 Multiplexed Nanomaterial-Based Sensor 124 8.3 Nanomaterial-Mediated Paper-Based Sensors 126 8.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Technology 127 8.5 Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Sensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 128 8.6 Zirconium Quantum Dot-Based Chemical Sensors 128 8.7 Calixarene-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Sensors 129 8.8 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor-Based Sensors 130 8.9 Conclusion 132 References 132 9 Lab on a Paper-Based Device for Coronavirus Biosensing 137 Lucas Felipe de Lima, Ariana de Souza Moraes, Paulo de Tarso Garcia, and William Reis de Araujo 9.1 Paper-Based Technology as Point-of-care Testing Devices 137 9.1.1 Fabrication Methods 140 9.1.2 Main Detection Methods Coupled to PADs 141 9.2 Current Outbreak and Coronavirus Biology 142 9.3 Main Approach Used to COVID-19 Biosensing 144 9.4 Paper-Based Analytical Devices for COVID-19 Diagnostics 145 9.5 Challenges and Perspectives 155 Acknowledgments 156 References 157 Part IV Commercialization and Standardization of Analytical Technologies 163 10 Nanobioengineering Approach for Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 165 Sidra Rashid, Umay Amara, Khalid Mahmood, Mian H. Nawaz, and Akhtar Hayat 10.1 Introduction 165 10.2 Can Nanobioengineering Stand in the Battle Against SARS-CoV-2? 166 10.3 Sequential and Molecular Data Analysis 167 10.3.1 Role of Nanobioengineering for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 168 10.4 Nanobioengineering-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 169 10.4.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Molecular Detection 169 10.4.1.1 Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 169 10.4.1.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 172 10.4.2 Protein-Based Detection 172 10.4.3 Lymphopenia-Based Assessment 175 10.4.4 Bioengineered Surfaces for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 177 10.4.5 Nanobioengineered Prototypes 177 10.4.6 Digital Radiographical Biosensing Platforms 177 10.4.7 Other Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 179 10.5 Discussion 179 10.6 Conclusions 180 10.7 Expert Opinion 180 10.8 Future Directions 181 References 181 11 Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 187 Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Cansu ˙I. Kuru, and Zeynep Yilmaz-Sercinoglu 11.1 Introduction 187 11.2 Detection of Viral Infections 187 11.2.1 Detection of Virus 187 11.2.1.1 Electron Microscopy 187 11.2.1.2 Viral Culture 188 11.2.2 Detection of Viral DNA/RNA 188 11.2.2.1 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 188 11.2.2.2 Microarrays 189 11.2.3 Detection of Post-infection Antibodies 189 11.2.3.1 Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs) 190 11.2.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 190 11.2.3.3 Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) 191 11.3 Current Biosensor Candidates for COVID-19 Detection 193 11.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 193 11.3.1.1 Impedimetry 195 11.3.1.2 Potentiometry 196 11.3.1.3 Conductometry 197 11.3.1.4 Voltammetry 197 11.3.1.5 Amperometry 198 11.4 Conclusions 199 References 201 12 Electrochemical Biosensor Fabrication for Coronavirus Testing 207 Monika Vats, Parvin, Mukul Taliyan, and Seema Rani Pathak 12.1 Introduction 207 12.2 Application of Electrochemical Biosensors 209 12.3 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 210 12.4 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors for COVID-19 (Immunosensors) 212 12.5 Conclusion 214 References 215 Part V Outlook 219 13 Effects of COVID-19: An Environmental Point of View 221 Kola Y. Kareem, Bashir Adelodun, AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, Hashim O. Bakare, and Jamiu A. Adeniran 13.1 Introduction 221 13.2 Methodological Approach 224 13.3 Effects of COVID-19 on Socioeconomic Development in the Environment 225 13.4 Environmental Management as an Important Factor for COVID-19 Transmission 225 13.5 Environmental Impact Assessment of COVID-19 226 13.5.1 Environmental Variables Related to COVID-19 226 13.5.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Global Physical Environment: Air Quality and Environmental Pollution 228 13.5.3 COVID-19 Impacts onWater Resources and Aquatic Life 231 13.5.4 COVID-19 Impacts on Ecological Parameters and Soil Systems 233 13.5.5 COVID-19 Impacts on Noise Pollution, Increased SolidWastes, and Recycling 234 13.5.6 COVID-19 Impacts onWastewater Quality and Sanitary Systems 234 13.5.7 Socioeconomic Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 235 13.5.8 Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment 235 13.6 Conclusion 236 References 237 14 COVID-19 Pandemic and CO2 Emission in the United States: A Sectoral Analysis 243 Afees A. Salisu, Tirimisiyu F. Oloko, and Idris A. Adediran 14.1 Introduction 243 14.2 Stylized Facts on the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sectoral CO2 Emission 245 14.3 Data Issues and Methodology 249 14.4 Empirical Results 251 14.4.1 Preliminary Results 251 14.4.2 Main Results 251 14.5 Conclusion 255 References 257 15 Theranostic Approach for Coronavirus 261 Anushree Pandey, Asif Ali, and Yuvraj S. Negi 15.1 Introduction 261 15.2 Conventional Medicines 262 15.3 Role of Nanoparticles in COVID-19 Detection 265 15.4 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) Coupled with a Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor (NBS) Assay 265 15.5 Point-of-care Testing 266 15.6 Optical Biosensor Nanotechnology 268 15.7 Nanopore Target Sequencing (NTS) 268 15.8 Role of Nanotechnology in the Treatment 269 15.9 Conclusion 270 References 270 Index 275