Analysis and Design of Electrical Power Systems: A Practical Guide and Commentary on NEC and IEC 60364

A one-stop resource on how to design standard-compliant low voltage electrical systems This book helps planning engineers in the design and application of low voltage networks. Structured according to the type of electrical system, e.g. asynchronous motors, three-phase networks, or lighting systems, it covers the respective electrical and electrotechnical fundamentals, provides information on the implementation of the relevant NEC and IEC standards, and gives an overview of applications in industry. Analysis and Design of Electrical Power Systems: A Practical Guide and Commentary on NEC and IEC 60364 starts by introducing readers to the subject before moving on to chapters on planning and project management. It then presents readers with complete coverage of medium- and low-voltage systems, transformers, asynchronous motors (ASM), switchgear combinations, emergency generators, and lighting systems. It also looks at equipment for overcurrent protection and protection against electric shock, as well as selectivity and backup protection. A chapter on the current carrying capacity of conductors and cables comes next, followed by ones on calculation of short circuit currents in three-phase networks and voltage drop calculations. Finally, the book takes a look at compensating for reactive power and finishes with a section on lightning protection systems. Covers a subject of great international importance Features numerous tables, diagrams, and worked examples that help practicing engineers in the planning of electrical systems Written by an expert in the field and member of various national and international standardization committees Supplemented with programs on an accompanying website that help readers reproduce and adapt calculations on their own Analysis and Design of Electrical Power Systems: A Practical Guide and Commentary on NEC and IEC 60364 is an excellent resource for all practicing engineers such as electrical engineers, engineers in power technology, etc. who are involved in electrical systems planning.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Symbols xix Abbreviations xxvii 1 Introduction 1 2 Electrical Systems 5 2.1 High-Voltage Power Systems 5 2.2 Transformer Selection Depending on Load Profiles 9 2.3 Low-Voltage Power Systems 10 2.4 Examples of Power Systems 17 2.4.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Power 17 2.4.2 Example 2: Calculation of the Main Power Line 17 2.4.3 Example: Power Supply of a Factory 17 3 Design of DC Current Installations 21 3.1 Earthing Arrangement 21 3.2 Protection Against Overcurrent 22 3.3 Architecture of Installations 23 4 Smart Grid 25 5 Project Management 27 5.1 Guidelines for Contracting 27 5.2 Guidelines for Project Planning of Electrical Systems 28 6 Three-Phase Alternating Current 31 6.1 Generation of Three-Phase Current 31 6.2 Advantages of the Three-Phase Current System 31 6.3 Conductor Systems 32 6.4 Star Connection 36 6.5 Triangle Circuit 37 6.6 Three-Phase Power 38 6.7 Example: Delta Connection 39 6.8 Example: Star Connection 41 6.9 Example: Three-Phase Consumer 43 6.10 Example: Network Calculation 44 6.11 Example: Network 45 6.12 Example: Star Connection 47 7 Symmetrical Components 49 7.1 Symmetrical Network Operation 49 7.2 Unsymmetrical Network Operation 51 7.3 Description of Symmetrical Components 51 7.4 Examples of Unbalanced Short-Circuits 54 7.4.1 Example: Symmetrical Components 54 7.4.2 Example: Symmetrical Components 54 7.4.3 Example: Symmetrical Components 55 8 Short-Circuit Currents 57 8.1 Introduction 57 8.2 Fault Types, Causes, and Designations 60 8.3 Short-circuit with R–L Network 61 8.4 Calculation of the Stationary Continuous Short-circuit 63 8.5 Calculation of the Settling Process 64 8.6 Calculation of a Peak Short-Circuit Current 65 8.6.1 Impact Factor for Branched Networks 65 8.6.2 Impact Factor for Meshed Networks 65 8.7 Calculation of the Breaking Alternating Current 66 8.8 Near-Generator Three-Phase Short-circuit 66 8.9 Calculation of the Initial Short-Circuit Alternating Current 67 8.10 Short-Circuit Power 68 8.11 Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in Meshed Networks 68 8.11.1 Superposition Method 68 8.11.2 Method of Equivalent Voltage Source 70 8.12 The Equivalent Voltage Source Method 72 8.13 Short-Circuit Impedances of Electrical Equipment 72 8.13.1 Network Feeders 73 8.13.2 Synchronous Machines 74 8.13.3 Transformers 75 8.13.4 Consideration of Motors 76 8.13.5 Overhead Lines, Cables, and Lines 78 8.13.6 Impedance Corrections 79 8.14 Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents 81 8.14.1 Three-Phase Short-circuits 81 8.14.2 Line-to-Line Short-circuit 82 8.14.3 Single-Phase Short-circuits to Ground 82 8.14.4 Calculation of Loop Impedance 83 8.14.5 Peak Short-Circuit Current 85 8.14.6 Symmetrical Breaking Current 85 8.14.7 Steady-State Short-circuit Current 87 8.15 Thermal and Dynamic Short-circuit Strength 87 8.16 Examples for the Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents 89 8.16.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Short-Circuit Current in a DC System 89 8.16.2 Example 2: Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in a Building Electrical System 91 8.16.3 Example 3: Dimensioning of an Exit Cable 92 8.16.4 Example 4: Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents with Zero-Sequence Resistances 93 8.16.5 Example 5: Complex Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents 94 8.16.6 Example 6: Calculation with Effective Power and Reactive Power 97 8.16.7 Example 7: Complete Calculation for a System 101 8.16.8 Example 8: Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents with Impedance Corrections 111 8.16.9 Example: Load Voltage and Zero Impedance 113 8.16.10 Example: Power Transmission 116 9 Relays 119 9.1 Terms and Definitions 119 9.2 Introduction 119 9.3 Requirements 121 9.4 Protective Devices for Electric Networks 121 9.5 Type of Relays 122 9.5.1 Electromechanical Protective Relays 122 9.5.2 Static Protection Relays 122 9.5.3 Numeric Protection Relays 122 9.6 Selective Protection Concepts 123 9.7 Overcurrent Protection 124 9.7.1 Examples for Independent Time Relays 126 9.8 Reserve Protection for IMT Relays with Time Staggering 126 9.9 Overcurrent Protection with Direction 126 9.10 Dependent Overcurrent Time Protection (DMT) 129 9.11 Differential Relays 131 9.12 Distance Protection 133 9.12.1 Method of Distance Protection 135 9.12.2 Distance Protection Zones 135 9.12.3 Relay Plan 135 9.13 Motor Protection 138 9.14 Busbar Protection 138 9.15 Saturation of Current Transformers 140 9.16 Summary 141 10 Power Flow in Three-Phase Network 143 10.1 Terms and Definitions 143 10.2 Introduction 143 10.3 Node Procedure 145 10.4 Simplified Node Procedure 148 10.5 Newton–Raphson Procedure 151 11 Substation Earthing 155 11.1 Terms and Definitions 155 11.2 Methods of Neutral Earthing 160 11.2.1 Isolated Earthing 162 11.2.2 Resonant Earthing 163 11.2.3 Double Earth Fault 164 11.2.4 Solid (Low-Impedance) Earthing 166 11.3 Examples for the Treatment of the Neutral Point 166 11.3.1 Example: Earth Fault CurrentWhen Operating with Free Neutral Point 166 11.3.2 Example: Calculation of Earth Fault Currents 167 11.3.3 Example: Ground Fault Current of a Cable 167 11.3.4 Example: Earth Leakage Coil 168 11.3.5 Example: Arc Suppression Coil 168 11.4 Dimensioning of Thermal Strength 168 11.5 Methods of Calculating Permissible Touch Voltages 169 11.6 Methods of Calculating Permissible Step Voltages 172 11.7 Current Injunction in the Ground 172 11.8 Design of Earthing Systems 173 11.9 Types of Earth Rods 175 11.9.1 Deep Rod 175 11.9.2 Earthing Strip 175 11.9.3 Mesh Earth 176 11.9.4 Ring Earth Electrode 177 11.9.5 Foundation Earthing 177 11.10 Calculation of the Earthing Conductors and Earth Electrodes 177 11.11 Substation Grounding IEEE Std. 80 178 11.11.1 Tolerable Body Current 178 11.11.2 Permissible Touch Voltages 179 11.11.3 Calculation of the Conductor Cross Section 180 11.11.4 Calculation of the Maximum Mesh Residual Current 181 11.12 Soil Resistivity Measurement 182 11.13 Measurement of Resistances and Impedances to Earth 184 11.14 Example: Calculation of a TR Station 184 11.15 Example: Earthing Resistance of a Building 186 11.15.1 Foundation Earthing REF 186 11.15.2 Ring Earth Electrode 1 RER1 187 11.15.3 Ring Earth Electrode 2 RER2 187 11.15.4 Deep Earth Electrode RET 187 11.15.5 Total Earthing Resistance RETotal 188 11.16 Example: Cross-Sectional Analysis 188 11.17 Example: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Earthing Conductor 189 11.18 Example: Grounding Resistance According to IEEE Std. 80 190 11.19 Example: Comparison of IEEE Std. 80 and EN 50522 193 11.20 Example of Earthing Drawings and Star Point Treatment of Transformers 194 11.21 Software for Earthing Calculation 199 11.21.1 Numerical Methods for Grounding System Analysis 199 11.21.2 IEEE Std. 80 and EN 50522 203 11.21.3 Summary 217 12 Protection Against Electric Shock 219 12.1 Voltage Ranges 221 12.2 Protection by Cut-Off orWarning Messages 222 12.2.1 TN Systems 222 12.2.2 TT Systems 224 12.2.3 IT Systems 226 12.2.4 Summary of Cut-Off Times and Loop Resistances 228 12.2.5 Example 1: Checking Protective Measures 229 12.2.6 Example 2: Determination of Rated Fuse Current 231 12.2.7 Example 3: Calculation of Maximum Conductor Length 231 12.2.8 Example 4: Fault Current Calculation for a TT System 231 12.2.9 Example 5: Cut-Off Condition for an IT System 232 12.2.10 Example 6: Protective Measure for Connection Line to a House 232 12.2.11 Example 7: Protective Measure for a TT System 233 13 Equipment for Overcurrent Protection 235 13.1 Electric Arc 235 13.1.1 Electric Arc Characteristic 235 13.1.2 DC Cut-Off 237 13.1.3 AC Cut-Off 237 13.1.3.1 Cut-Off for Large Inductances 238 13.1.3.2 Cut-Off of Pure Resistances 239 13.1.3.3 Cut-Off of Capacitances 239 13.1.3.4 Cut-Off of Small Inductances 239 13.1.4 Transient Voltage 240 13.2 Low-Voltage Switchgear 241 13.2.1 Characteristic Parameters 241 13.2.2 Main or Load Switches 242 13.2.3 Motor Protective Switches 242 13.2.4 Contactors and Motor Starters 244 13.2.5 Circuit-Breakers 244 13.2.6 RCDs (Residual Current Protective Devices) 245 13.2.7 Main Protective Equipment 248 13.2.8 Meter Mounting Boards with Main Protective Switch 249 13.2.9 Fuses 251 13.2.9.1 Types of Construction 253 13.2.10 Power Circuit-Breakers 256 13.2.10.1 Short-Circuit Categories in Accordance with IEC 60947 258 13.2.10.2 Breaker Types 259 13.2.11 Load Interrupter Switches 260 13.2.12 Disconnect Switches 260 13.2.13 Fuse Links 261 13.2.14 List of Components 261 14 Current Carrying Capacity of Conductors and Cables 263 14.1 Terms and Definitions 263 14.2 Overload Protection 264 14.3 Short-Circuit Protection 265 14.3.1 Designation of Conductors 268 14.3.2 Designation of Cables 269 14.4 Current Carrying Capacity 270 14.4.1 Loading Capacity Under Normal Operating Conditions 270 14.4.2 Loading Capacity Under Fault Conditions 271 14.4.3 Installation Types and Load Values for Lines and Cables 273 14.4.4 Current Carrying Capacity of Heavy Current Cables and Correction Factors for Underground and Overhead Installation 276 14.5 Examples of Current Carrying Capacity 280 14.5.1 Example 1: Checking Current Carrying Capacity 280 14.5.2 Example 2: Checking Current Carrying Capacity 285 14.5.3 Example 3: Protection of Cables in Parallel 290 14.5.4 Example 4: Connection of a Three-Phase Cable 293 14.5.5 Example 5: Apartment Building Without ElectricalWater Heating 294 14.6 Examples for the Calculation of Overcurrents 300 14.6.1 Example 1: Determination of Overcurrents and Short-Circuit Currents 300 14.6.2 Example 2: Overload Protection 302 14.6.3 Example 3: Short-Circuit Strength of a Conductor 303 14.6.4 Example 4: Checking Protective Measures for Circuit-Breakers 304 15 Selectivity and Backup Protection 309 15.1 Selectivity 309 15.2 Backup Protection 317 16 Voltage Drop Calculations 321 16.1 Consideration of the Voltage Drop of a Line 321 16.2 Example: Voltage Drop on a 10 kV Line 325 16.3 Example: Line Parameters of a Line 325 16.4 Example: Line Parameters of a Line 327 16.5 Voltage Regulation 328 16.5.1 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With the Technical Conditions for Connection 328 16.5.2 Permissible Voltage Drop in Accordance With Electrical Installations in Buildings 329 16.5.3 Voltage Drops in Load Systems 329 16.5.4 Voltage Drops in Accordance With IEC 60364 330 16.5.5 Parameters for the Maximum Line Length 330 16.5.6 Summary of Characteristic Parameters 333 16.5.7 Lengths of Conductors With a Source Impedance 334 16.6 Examples for the Calculation of Voltage Drops 334 16.6.1 Example 1: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a DC System 334 16.6.2 Example 2: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an AC System 335 16.6.3 Voltage Drop for a Three-Phase System 336 16.6.4 Example 4: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Distributor 338 16.6.5 Calculation of Cross Section According to Voltage Drop 338 16.6.6 Example 6: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an Industrial Plant 339 16.6.7 Example 7: Calculation of Voltage Drop for an Electrical Outlet 339 16.6.8 Example 8: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a HotWater Storage Unit 339 16.6.9 Example 9: Calculation of Voltage Drop for a Pump Facility 339 16.6.10 Example: Calculation of Line Parameters 340 17 Switchgear Combinations 343 17.1 Terms and Definitions 343 17.2 Design of the Switchgear 347 17.2.1 Data for Design 347 17.2.2 Design of the Distributor and Proof of Construction 348 17.2.3 Short-Circuit Resistance Proofing 348 17.2.4 Proof of Heating 349 17.2.5 Determination of an Operating Current 349 17.2.6 Determination of Power Losses 350 17.2.7 Determination of a Design Loading Factor RDF 350 17.2.8 Determination of an Operating Current 350 17.2.9 Check of Short-Circuit Variables 351 17.2.10 Construction and Manufacturing of the Distribution 351 17.2.11 CE Conformity 352 17.3 Proof of Observance of Boundary Overtemperatures 352 17.4 Power Losses 353 18 Compensation for Reactive Power 355 18.1 Terms and Definitions 355 18.2 Effect of Reactive Power 358 18.3 Compensation for Transformers 358 18.4 Compensation for Asynchronous Motors 359 18.5 Compensation for Discharge Lamps 359 18.6 c∕k Value 360 18.7 Resonant Circuits 360 18.8 Harmonics and Voltage Quality 360 18.8.1 CompensationWith Nonchoked Capacitors 362 18.8.2 Inductor–Capacitor Units 363 18.8.3 Series Resonant Filter Circuits 365 18.9 Static Compensation for Reactive Power 365 18.9.1 Planning of Compensation Systems 368 18.10 Examples of Compensation for Reactive Power 368 18.10.1 Example 1: Determination of Capacitive Power 368 18.10.2 Example 2: Capacitive Power With k Factor 369 18.10.3 Example 3: Determination of Cable Cross Section 369 18.10.4 Example 4: Calculation of the c∕k Value 370 19 Lightning Protection Systems 371 19.1 Lightning Protection Class 373 19.2 Exterior Lightning Protection 374 19.2.1 Air Terminal 374 19.2.2 Down Conductors 375 19.2.3 Grounding Systems 379 19.2.3.1 Minimum Length of Ground Electrodes 385 19.2.4 Example 1: Calculation of Grounding Resistances 386 19.2.5 Example 2: Minimum Lengths of Grounding Electrodes 387 19.2.6 Exposure Distances in theWall Area 387 19.2.7 Grounding of Antenna Systems 389 19.2.8 Examples of Installations 389 19.3 Interior Lightning Protection 392 19.3.1 The EMC Lightning Protection Zone Concept 392 19.3.2 Planning Data for Lightning Protection Systems 395 20 Lighting Systems 399 20.1 Interior Lighting 399 20.1.1 Terms and Definitions 399 20.2 Types of Lighting 400 20.2.1 Normal Lighting 400 20.2.2 Normal Workplace-Oriented Lighting 400 20.2.3 Localized Lighting 400 20.2.4 Technical Requirements for Lighting 401 20.2.5 Selection and Installation of Operational Equipment 401 20.2.6 Lighting Circuits for Special Rooms and Systems 402 20.3 Lighting Calculations 403 20.4 Planning of Lighting with Data Blocks 405 20.4.1 System Power 405 20.4.2 Distribution of Luminous Intensity 405 20.4.3 Luminous Flux Distribution 405 20.4.4 Efficiencies 406 20.4.5 Spacing Between Lighting Elements 407 20.4.6 Number of Fluorescent Lamps in a Room 407 20.4.7 Illuminance Distribution Curves 407 20.4.8 Maximum Number of Fluorescent Lamps on Switches 407 20.4.9 Maximum Number of Discharge Lamps Per Circuit-Breaker 408 20.4.10 Mark of Origin 408 20.4.11 Standard Values for Planning Lighting Systems 409 20.4.12 Economic Analysis and Costs of Lighting 409 20.5 Procedure for Project Planning 412 20.6 Exterior Lighting 413 20.7 Low-Voltage Halogen Lamps 415 20.8 Safety and Standby Lighting 416 20.8.1 Terms and Definitions 416 20.8.2 Circuits 417 20.8.3 Structural Types for Groups of People 417 20.8.4 Planning and Configuring of Emergency Symbol and Safety Lighting 417 20.8.5 Power Supply 421 20.8.6 Notes on Installation 422 20.8.7 Testing During Operation 422 20.9 Battery Systems 423 20.9.1 Central Battery Systems 423 20.9.2 Grouped Battery Systems 427 20.9.3 Single Battery Systems 429 20.9.4 Example: Dimensioning of Safety and Standby Lighting 432 21 Generators 435 21.1 Generators in Network Operation 437 21.2 Connecting Parallel to the Network 438 21.3 Consideration of Power and Torque 438 21.4 Power Diagram of a Turbo Generator 439 21.5 Example 1: Polar Wheel Angle Calculation 440 21.6 Example 2: Calculation of the Power Diagram 440 22 Transformer 441 22.1 Introduction 441 22.2 Core 445 22.3 Winding 446 22.4 Constructions 446 22.5 AC Transformer 446 22.5.1 Construction 446 22.5.2 Mode of Action 447 22.5.3 Idling Stress 448 22.5.4 Voltage and Current Translation 448 22.5.5 Operating Behavior of the Transformer 449 22.6 Three-phase Transformer 452 22.6.1 Construction 452 22.6.2 Windings 452 22.6.3 Circuit Groups 452 22.6.4 Overview of Vector Groups 454 22.6.5 Parallel Connection of Transformers 454 22.7 Transformers for Measuring Purposes 457 22.7.1 Current Transformers 457 22.7.2 Voltage Transformer 457 22.7.3 Frequency Transformer 458 22.8 Transformer Efficiency 459 22.9 Protection of Transformers 459 22.10 Selection of Transformers 459 22.11 Calculation of a Continuous Short-Circuit Current on the NS Side of a Transformer 461 22.12 Examples of Transformers 462 22.12.1 Example 1: Calculation of the Continuous Short-Circuit Current 462 22.12.2 Example: Calculation of a Three-phase Transformer 462 23 Asynchronous Motors 467 23.1 Designs and Types 467 23.1.1 Principle of Operation (No-Load) 468 23.1.1.1 Motor Behavior 469 23.1.1.2 Generator Behavior 469 23.1.2 Typical Speed–Torque Characteristics 469 23.2 Properties Characterizing Asynchronous Motors 471 23.2.1 Rotor Frequency 471 23.2.2 Torque 471 23.2.3 Slip 472 23.2.4 Gear System 472 23.3 Startup of Asynchronous Motors 473 23.3.1 Direct Switch-On 473 23.3.2 Star Delta Startup 474 23.4 Speed Adjustment 479 23.4.1 Speed Control by the Slip 479 23.4.2 Speed Control by Frequency 479 23.4.3 Speed Control by Pole Changing 480 23.4.4 Soft Starters 481 23.4.5 Example: Calculation of Overload and Starting Conditions 483 23.4.6 Example: Calculation of Motor Data 484 23.4.7 Example: Calculation of the Belt Pulley Diameter and Motor Power 485 23.4.8 Example: Dimensioning of a Motor 485 24 Questions About Book 487 24.1 Characteristics of Electrical Cables 487 24.2 Dimensioning of Electric Cables 487 24.3 Voltage Drop and Power Loss 488 24.4 Protective Measures and Earthing in the Low-voltage Power Systems 488 24.5 Short Circuit Calculation 488 24.6 Switchgear 489 24.7 Protection Devices 489 24.8 Electric Machines 489 References 491 Index 495

About the Author :
Ismail Kasikci, PhD, is a retired Professor at the University of Applied Sciences Biberach, Germany. His main area of research focuses on the IEC/EN and VDE regulations of electrical energy supply, design of electrical installations of buildings, solar electricity, wind power generation, building integrated renewables, design and protection of distribution power systems, smart grids, solar and wind power, and connectivity requirements. He is an active member in various national and international standards committees in the field of electrical and electronics engineering.