Surfaces and Interfaces of Electronic Materials

An advanced level textbook covering geometric, chemical, and electronic structure of electronic materials, and their applications to devices based on semiconductor surfaces, metal-semiconductor interfaces, and semiconductor heterojunctions. Starting with the fundamentals of electrical measurements on semiconductor interfaces, it then describes the importance of controlling macroscopic electrical properties by atomic-scale techniques. Subsequent chapters present the wide range of surface and interface techniques available to characterize electronic, optical, chemical, and structural properties of electronic materials, including semiconductors, insulators, nanostructures, and organics. The essential physics and chemistry underlying each technique is described in sufficient depth with references to the most authoritative sources for more exhaustive discussions, while numerous examples are provided throughout to illustrate the applications of each technique. With its general reading lists, extensive citations to the text, and problem sets appended to all chapters, this is ideal for students of electrical engineering, physics and materials science. It equally serves as a reference for physicists, material science and electrical and electronic engineers involved in surface and interface science, semiconductor processing, and device modeling and design. This is a coproduction of Wiley and IEEE * Free solutions manual available for lecturers at www.wiley-vch.de/supplements/

Table of Contents:
Preface XVII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Surface and Interfaces in Everyday Life 1 1.2 Surfaces and Interfaces in Electronics Technology 2 2 Historical Background 9 2.1 Contact Electrification and the Development of Solid-State Concepts 9 2.2 High-Purity Semiconductor Crystals 10 2.3 Development of the Transistor 10 2.4 The Surface Science Era 12 2.5 Advances in Crystal Growth Techniques 13 2.6 Future Electronics 15 3 Electrical Measurements 19 3.1 Schottky Barrier Overview 19 3.2 Ideal Schottky Barriers 20 3.3 Real Schottky Barriers 22 3.4 Schottky Barrier Height Measurements 25 3.5 Summary 33 4 Interface States 37 4.1 Interface State Models 37 4.2 Simple Model Calculation of Electronic Surface States 39 4.3 Intrinsic Surface States 42 4.4 Extrinsic Surface States 52 4.5 Chapter Summary 62 5 Ultrahigh Vacuum Technology 67 5.1 Ultrahigh Vacuum Vessels 67 5.2 Pumps 70 5.3 Specimen Manipulators 76 5.4 Gauges 76 5.5 Deposition Sources 77 5.6 Deposition Monitors 79 5.7 Summary 80 6 Surface and Interface Analysis 83 6.1 Surface and Interface Techniques 83 6.2 Excited Electron Spectroscopies 85 6.3 Principles of Surface Sensitivity 88 6.4 Surface Analytic and Processing Chambers 89 6.5 Summary 92 7 Photoemission Spectroscopy 93 7.1 The Photoelectric Effect 93 7.2 The Optical Excitation Process 95 7.3 Photoionization Cross Section 95 7.4 Density of States 96 7.5 Experimental Spectrum 96 7.6 Experimental Energy Distribution Curves 97 7.7 Measured Photoionization Cross Sections 100 7.8 Principles of X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 112 7.9 Excitation Sources 119 7.10 Electron Energy Analyzers 122 7.11 Summary 125 8 Photoemission with Soft X-rays 129 8.1 Soft X-ray Spectroscopy Techniques 129 8.2 Synchrotron Radiation Sources 129 8.3 Soft X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy 132 8.4 Related Soft X-ray Techniques 141 8.5 Summary 143 9 Particle-Solid Scattering 147 9.1 Overview 147 9.2 Scattering Cross Section 147 9.3 Electron Beam Spectroscopies 151 9.4 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 153 9.5 Auger Depth Profiling 163 10 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 169 10.1 Overview 169 10.2 Dielectric Response Theory 171 10.3 Surface Phonon Scattering 172 10.4 Bulk and Surface Plasmon Scattering 174 10.5 Interface Electronic Transitions 177 10.6 Atomic-Scale Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 180 10.7 Summary 181 11 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 183 11.1 Overview 183 11.2 Theory of Rutherford Backscattering 184 11.3 Depth Profiling 187 11.4 Channeling and Blocking 190 11.5 Interface Studies 192 11.6 Summary 195 12 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry 197 12.1 Overview 197 12.2 Principles 197 12.3 SIMS Equipment 199 12.4 Secondary Ion Yields 203 12.5 Imaging 206 12.6 Dynamic SIMS 207 12.7 Organic and Biological Species 211 12.8 Summary 211 13 Electron Diffraction 213 13.1 Overview 213 13.2 Principles of Low-Energy Electron Diffraction 213 13.3 LEED Equipment 215 13.4 LEED Kinematics 216 13.5 Surface Reconstruction 217 13.6 Surface Lattices and Superstructures 219 13.7 Silicon Reconstructions 221 13.8 III-V Compound Semiconductor Reconstructions 223 13.9 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction 227 13.8.1 RHEED Oscillations 232 13.9 Summary 233 14 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 237 14.1 Overview 237 14.2 Tunneling Theory 239 14.3 Surface Structure 244 14.4 Atomic Force Microscopy 246 14.5 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy 249 14.6 Atomic Positioning 252 14.7 Summary 253 15 Optical Spectroscopies 257 15.1 Overview 257 15.2 Optical Absorption 257 15.3 Modulation Techniques 260 15.4 Multiple Surface Interaction Techniques 262 15.5 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 263 15.6 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy 264 15.7 Surface Photoconductivity 267 15.8 Surface Photovoltage Spectroscopy 268 15.9 Summary 276 16 Cathodoluminescence Spectroscopy 279 16.1 Overview 279 16.2 Theory 281 16.3 Monte Carlo Simulations 291 16.4 Depth-Resolved Cathodoluminescence Spectroscopy 293 16.5 Summary 302 17 Electronic Materials' Surfaces 305 17.1 Overview 305 17.2 Geometric Structure 305 17.3 Chemical Structure 311 17.4 Etching 318 17.5 Electronic Implications 323 17.6 Summary 323 18 Adsorbates on Electronic Materials' Surfaces 327 18.1 Overview 327 18.2 Geometric Structure 327 18.3 Chemical Properties 336 18.4 Electronic Properties 346 18.5 Summary 356 19 Adsorbate-Semiconductor Sensors 365 19.1 Adsorbate-Surface Charge Transfer 365 19.2 Sensors 370 19.3 Summary 379 20 Semiconductor Heterojunctions 383 20.1 Overview 383 20.2 Geometric Structure 383 20.3 Chemical Structure 397 20.4 Electronic Structure 402 20.5 Summary 439 21 Metals on Semiconductors 447 21.1 Overview 447 21.2 Metal-Semiconductor Interface Dipoles 448 21.3 Interface States 449 21.4 Self-Consistent Electrostatic Calculations 467 21.5 Fermi-Level Pinning Models 471 21.6 Experimental Schottky Barriers 471 21.7 Interface Passivation and Control 492 21.8 Summary 514 22 The Future of Interfaces 523 22.1 Current Status 523 22.2 Current Device Applications and Challenges 525 22.3 New Directions 528 22.4 Synopsis 536 Appendices 539 Appendix 1: Glossary of Commonly Used Symbols 541 Appendix 2: Table of Acronyms 544 Appendix 3: Table of Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 548 Appendix 4: Semiconductor Properties 549 Appendix 5: Table of Preferred Work Functions 551 Appendix 6: Derivation of Fermi's Golden Rule 552 Appendix 7: Derivation of Photoemission Cross Section for a Square Well 555 Index 557

About the Author :
Leonard Brillson is a professor of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Physics, and Center for Materials Research Scholar at The Ohio State University in Columbus, OH, USA. Prior to that, he was director of Xerox Corporation's Materials Research Laboratory and had responsibility for Xerox's long-range physical science and technology programs at the company's research headquarters in Rochester, N.Y. He is a Fellow of IEEE, AAAS, AVS, and APS, and a former Governing Board member of the American Institute of Physics. He has authored over 300 scientific publications and received numerous scientific awards, including the AVS Gaede-Langmuir Award.