Organic Photovoltaics: Materials, Device Physics, and Manufacturing Technologies

The versatility of organic photovoltaics is already well known and this completely revised, updated, and enlarged edition of a classic provides an up-to-date overview of this hot topic. The proven structure of the successful first edition, divided into the three key aspects of successful device design: materials, device physics, and manufacturing technologies, has been retained. Important aspects such as printing technologies, substrates, and electrode systems are covered. The result is a balanced, comprehensive text on the fundamentals as well as the latest results in the area that will set R&D trends for years to come. With its combination of both academic and commercial technological views, this is an optimal source of information for scientists, engineers, and graduate students already actively working in this field, and looking for comprehensive summaries on specific topics.

Table of Contents:
PART I: Materials for Thin Film Organic Photovoltaics OVERVIEW OF POLYMER AND COPOLYMER MATERIALS FOR ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS Introduction Early Efforts Toward Devices with 5% Efficiencies Novel Thiopene-Containing Polymers Fluorene-Containing Molecules Carbazole-Based Copolymers New Heterocyclic Polymers Polymers Based on Other Types of Building Blocks Conclusions THIOPHENE-BASED HIGH-PERFORMANCE DONOR POLYMERS FOR ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS Introduction Bandgap Engineering Charge Generation in Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells Polyalkylthiophenes Polyalkylthiophene/PCBM Blends Polythiophene Copolymers Side Chain Functionalized P3AT Derivatives Third-Generation Polythiophenes Thiophene-Based Push?Pull Copolymers Benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']dithiophene-Based Polymers Cyclopental[2,1-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-Based Polymers Indacenodithiophene-Based Polymers Conclusion and Outlook MOLECULAR DESIGN OF CONJUGATED POLYMERS FOR HIGH-EFFICIENCY SOLAR CELLS Introduction Structural Features of Conjugated Polymers "D-A" Approach Quinoid Approach Summary and Outlook SOLUTION-PROCESSED MOLECULAR BULK HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS Introduction Monochromophoric Molecules Multichromophoric Molecules Summary and Future Directions VACUUM-PROCESSED DONOR MATERIALS FOR ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS Introduction Planar and Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells Summary and Future Prospects POLYMER-NANOCRYSTAL HYBRID SOLAR CELLS Introduction Semiconductor Nanocrystals Working Principles and Device Structure Evolution of Polymer-NC Hybrid Solar Cells Recent Approaches for Overcoming Current Limitations Novel Concepts and Perspectives Summary and Outlook FULLEREN-BASED ACCEPTOR MATERIALS Introduction and Overview Fullerenes as n-Type Semiconductors Fullerene Derivatives Derivatives of C70 and C84 Fullerene Bisadducts Endohedral Compounds Commercialization of Fullerene Derivatives POLYMERIC ACCEPTOR SEMICONDUCTORS FOR ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS Introduction Basics Principles and Operation for Organic Solar Cells Polymeric Acceptor Semiconductors Conclusions and Perspective WATER/ALCOHOL-SOLUBLE CONJUGATED POLYMER-BASED INTERLAYERS FOR POLYMER SOLAR CELLS Introduction The Development of Water/Alcohol-Soluble Conjugated Polymers as Interlayer Materials Interface Engineering for Polymer Solar Cells Discussion of the Working Mechanism Summary METAL OXIDE INTERLAYERS FOR POLYMER SOLAR CELLS Introduction Conventional Structure Inverted Structure Tandem Structure Additional Oxides (Cr2O3, CuOx, PbO) Conclusions PART II: Device Physics of Thin Film Organic Photovoltaics BIMOLECULAR AND TRAP-ASSISTED RECOMBINATION IN ORGANIC BULK HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS Introduction Recombination at Open Circuit Trap-Assisted Recombination at Open Circuit Investigation of the Nature Recombination by Electroluminescence Measurements Bimolecular Recombination Strength in Organic BHJ Solar Cells Bimolecular Recombination Losses Under Short-Circuit Conditions Effect of Bimolecular Recombination on Fill Factor and Efficiency Conclusions ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAIC MORPHOLOGY Introduction Order in Bulk Heterojunctions Nanoscale Morphology in Bulk Heterojunctions Phases in a Bulk Heterojunction Structure of the Interface between Phases In Situ Measurements of Morphology Development INTERCALATION IN POLYMER:FULLERENE BLENDS Introduction Methods for Detecting Molecular Mixing Factors Affecting Molecular Mixing The Effect of Molecular Mixing on Electronic Properties and Solar Cells Conclusions ORGANIC TANDEM SOLAR CELLS Introduction and Working Principle Measurement Techniques Efficient Intermediate Charge Carrier Recombination Light Management Choice of Materials Parallel Tandem Architectures New Tandem Solar Cell Concepts Conclusions SOLID-STATE DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS Introduction Working Principles of Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Loss Mechanims in Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells with Spiro-OMeTAD as Hole Conductor Hybrid Solar Cells with Absorbing Hole Conductors Ordered Nanostructures for Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Summary and Outlook PART III: Technology for Thin Film Organic PV REEL-TO-REEL PROCESSING OF HIGHLY CONDUCTIVE METAL OXIDES Introduction Materials Deposition Technology Equipment Alternative Approaches FLEXIBLE SUBSTRATE REQUIREMENTS FOR ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS Introduction Polyester Substrates Properties of Base Substrates Concluding Remarks ADHESIVES FOR ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAIC PACKAGING Introduction Encapsulation Process for Organic Photovoltaics Chemistry Aspects of Barier Adhesives Barrier Performance of OPV Adhesives Conclusions ROLL-TO-ROLL PROCESSING OF POLYMER SOLAR CELLS Introduction The Roll-to-Roll Process Structure of Modules Coating and Printing Techniques for PSC Materials Roll-tol-Roll Printing of Electrodes R2R Encapsulation Roll-to-Roll Characterization Future and Outlook CURRENT AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS Scientific and Technological Aspects Commercial Applications Challenges and Major Hurdles Index

About the Author :
Christoph J. Brabec is full professor at the University of Erlangen-Nurnberg, Germany heading the chair i-MEET "materials for electronics and energy technology" at the department of material science. After completing his PhD in 1995, he joined the group of Prof. Alan Heeger at the University of Santa Barbara, USA, for a sabbatical in 1996, and continued to work on the opto-electronic properties of organic semiconductors as assistant professor at the University of Linz with Prof. Serdar Sariciftci. In 1998, he became senior scientist at the Christian Doppler Laboratory working on organic solar cells, which he left in 2001 to join Siemens Corporate Technology as project leader for organic semiconductor devices. From 2004 on he became headed the printed photovoltaics programme at Konarka Technologies as director and later on as CTO, before he joined Erlangen university in 2009. He finished his habilitation in physical chemistry at the Johannes Kepler University of Linz in 2003, and is author or co-author of more than 250 papers and inventor or co-inventor of over 100 patents. He is co-chair of the editorial board of the Wiley-VCH journal "Advanced Energy Materials". Ullrich Scherf is full professor for Macromolecular Chemistry at Bergische Universitat Wuppertal, Germany, and director of the interdisciplinary research cluster "Institute for Polymer Technology". He studied chemistry at Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, Germany, obtaining his PhD in 1988 and subsequently spent one postdoctoral year with Heinz Penzlin, Saxonian Academy of Sciences, Jena. He joined the Klaus Mullen group at Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research in Mainz in 1990 and completed his habilitation in 1996 on polyarylenetype ladder polymers. Ullrich Scherf was Professor for Polymer Chemistry at Potsdam University (2000-02) and, since 2002, Professor for Macromolecular Chemistry at Wuppertal University. He has authored or co-authored more than 500 refereed journal papers. Vladimir Dyakonov is full professor of experimental physics at the University of Wurzburg, Germany, and scientific director of the Bavarian Centre of Applied Energy Research (ZAE Bayern) in Wurzburg. He obtained his diploma degree in physics from the University of Saint Petersburg, Russia his PhD from the A. F. Ioffe-Institute in Russia and his habilitation degree from the University of Oldenburg, Germany, in 1986, 1996 and 2001, respectively. From 1996 to 1998, he worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the universities of Antwerp, Belgium, and Linz, Austria.