Basic Health Physics: Problems and Solutions

Designed to prepare candidates for the American Board of Health Physics Comprehensive examination (Part I) and other certification examinations, this monograph introduces professionals in the field to radiation protection principles and their practical application in routine and emergency situations. It features more than 650 worked examples illustrating concepts under discussion along with in-depth coverage of sources of radiation, standards and regulations, biological effects of ionizing radiation, instrumentation, external and internal dosimetry, counting statistics, monitoring and interpretations, operational health physics, transportation and waste, nuclear emergencies, and more. Reflecting for the first time the true scope of health physics at an introductory level, Basic Health Physics: Problems and Solutions gives readers the tools to properly evaluate challenging situations in all areas of radiation protection, including the medical, university, power reactor, fuel cycle, research reactor, environmental, non-ionizing radiation, and accelerator health physics.

Table of Contents:
Preface to the Second Edition xxi Preface to the First Edition xxiii Part I Radiation Protection Fundamentals 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Questions 3 References 19 Part II Introduction to Radiation Protection 21 2 Dosimetric Quantities and Units 23 2.1 Overview 23 2.2 Basic Concepts 23 2.2.1 Exposure (X) 23 2.2.2 Absorbed Dose (D) 24 2.2.3 Dose Equivalent (H) 25 2.2.4 Committed Dose Equivalent (HT) 25 2.2.5 Effective Dose Equivalent (HE) 25 2.2.6 Kerma 26 2.2.7 Equivalent Dose (HT) 26 2.2.8 Effective Dose (E) 27 2.2.9 Specifi c Energy Imparted 28 2.2.10 Lineal Energy 28 2.3 Radiation Field Quantities 29 2.3.1 Particle Fluence and Fluence Rate 29 2.3.2 Energy Fluence and Energy Fluence Rate 29 2.4 Total Mass Stopping Power 31 2.5 Linear Energy Transfer 32 2.6 Questions 33 References 38 3 Natural and Human-Made Sources of Radiation Exposure 41 3.1 Overview 41 3.2 Natural Sources of Radiation Exposure 41 3.3 Exposure Estimates 42 3.3.1 Cosmic Radiation 42 3.3.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 42 3.3.3 Terrestrial Gamma Radiation 42 3.3.4 Inhaled Radionuclides 43 3.3.5 Radionuclides in the Body 43 3.3.6 Total Exposure from Natural Background 43 3.4 Genetically Significant Dose 45 3.5 Human-Made Sources Of Radiation Exposure 45 3.5.1 Occupational Exposures 45 3.6 Example Applications 45 3.6.1 Neutron Sources 46 3.6.2 Oil Well Logging 46 3.6.3 Radiography 46 3.6.4 Radiation Sterilization and Preservation 46 3.6.5 Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Testing 47 3.6.6 Public Radiation Exposure from Medical Diagnosis and Therapy 47 3.7 Comparison of Population Doses for 2006 and the Early 1980s 48 3.8 Questions 50 References 55 4 Standards and Regulations 57 4.1 Objectives of Standards 57 4.2 Occupational Limits 57 4.3 Non Occupational or Public Exposures 58 4.4 Regulations 58 4.4.1 Minors 59 4.4.2 Planned Special Exposures 60 4.4.3 Notifications 61 4.5 Other Requirements 61 4.6 Questions 61 References 67 5 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 69 5.1 Overview 69 5.2 Biological Effects 69 5.2.1 Oxygen Effect 70 5.3 Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau 70 5.4 Degree of Biological Damage 71 5.5 General Radiation Effects and Irradiations in the Individual 71 5.6 Specific Radiation Effects 72 5.6.1 Acute Radiation Exposures 73 5.6.2 Skin Exposures 73 5.7 Delayed Effects 74 5.8 Radiation Risk and Risk Models 76 5.9 ICRP 103 Risk Coefficients 77 5.10 Basic Epidemiology 78 5.11 Dose Response Relationships 78 5.12 Risk Models 79 5.12.1 BEIR VII 79 5.13 Probability of Causation 81 5.13.1 Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act 2 5.14 Questions 83 References 93 6 Instrumentation 97 6.1 Overview 97 6.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 97 6.2.1 Ionization Region 98 6.2.2 Proportional Region 99 6.2.3 Geiger–Mueller Region 100 6.2.4 Photomultiplier Tubes 101 6.3 Scintillation Counters 101 6.4 Semiconductor Detectors 102 6.5 Nuclear Spectroscopy 103 6.6 Alpha Particle Monitoring 104 6.7 Gamma Monitoring 105 6.8 Beta Particle Monitoring 106 6.9 Neutron Monitoring 107 6.10 Instrumentation Summary 108 6.11 Particle Detection Efficiency 108 6.12 Personal Dosimetry Devices 108 6.13 Questions 114 References 122 7 External Dosimetry – Basic Source Geometries and Attenuation Relationships 125 7.1 Source Configurations – No Shielding 125 7.1.1 Point Source Geometry 125 7.1.2 Line Source Geometry 127 7.1.3 Disc Source Geometry 127 7.1.4 Slab Source Geometry 128 7.2 Attenuation by a Shield without Buildup 128 7.3 Attenuation by a Shield with Buildup 129 7.4 Activation Sources 129 7.5 Charged Particle Dose 130 7.6 Beta Dose 132 7.7 Questions 133 References 139 8 Internal Dosimetry 141 8.1 Internal Dose Assessment Models 141 8.2 Internal Dosimetry Definitions 142 8.3 ICRP 2/10 Methodology 142 8.3.1 Single-Uptake, Single-Compartment Model 142 8.3.2 Constant Rate of Uptake, Single-Compartment Model 144 8.3.3 Variation of q f2 after the Cessation of the Uptake 144 8.4 MIRD Theory 145 8.5 Simplified MIRD Equation 146 8.6 Alternate MIRD Equation 148 8.7 MIRD Equation 148 8.8 ICRP 26/30 Dose Methodology 150 8.8.1 Metabolic Models 151 8.8.2 Lung Model 151 8.8.3 Ingestion Model 153 8.8.4 Calculation of Doses 155 8.9 ICRP 60/66 Methodology 155 8.9.1 Detriment 156 8.9.2 Terminology 157 8.10 ICRP 103/66/100 Methodology 160 8.10.1 Radiation Effects, Tissue Weighting Factors, and Radiation Weighting Factors 160 8.10.2 Sex-Averaging 161 8.10.3 Assessment of Occupational Dose 162 8.11 Human Respiratory Tract Model (HRTM) 162 8.11.1 Absorption 163 8.11.2 Particle Sizes 164 8.11.3 Additional Model Details 164 8.12 Human Alimentary Tract Model (HATM) 165 8.12.1 Absorption to Blood 167 8.12.2 Dose Calculations 169 8.13 Questions 169 References 177 9 ALARA and Shielding 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 ALARA Principles 181 9.2.1 Time 181 9.2.2 Distance 182 9.2.3 Shielding 183 9.2.3.1 Photon Shielding 183 9.2.3.2 X-ray Shielding 184 9.2.3.3 Beta Particle Shielding 185 9.2.3.4 Bremsstrahlung 185 9.2.3.5 Shield Design and Beta-Ray Properties 186 9.2.3.6 Neutron Shielding 187 9.3 Elements of ALARA 187 9.3.1 Job Planning 188 9.3.2 Job Execution 189 9.3.3 Review of Job Completion 189 9.4 Accident Conditions 189 9.5 ALARA Examples 190 9.6 ALARA in Advanced Technologies 191 9.6.1 Fusion Reactors 191 9.6.2 Muon Colliders 192 9.7 Questions 194 References 199 10 Counting Statistics 201 10.1 Overview 201 10.2 Distributions 201 10.3 Mean and Standard Deviation 202 10.4 Errors and Confidence Interval 203 10.5 Statistical Error 204 10.6 Error Introduced by the Background 205 10.7 Optimum Distribution of Counting Time between Sample and Background 206 10.8 Terminology 207 10.8.1 Critical Level 207 10.8.2 Lower Limit of Detection (LLD) 208 10.8.3 Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA) 208 10.9 Type Errors 209 10.10 Statistical Tests and Data Characteristics 210 10.10.1 Propagation of Errors 211 10.10.2 Comparison of Data Sets Using the Student’s t-Test 212 10.10.3 Distribution of a Series of Counts – Chi-Square Statistic 213 10.10.4 Rejection of Data 215 10.11 Questions 216 References 222 Part III Applications 225 11 Monitoring and Interpretation 227 11.1 Overview 227 11.2 External Dose Measurements 227 11.3 Bioassay 228 11.4 Air Sampling 231 11.5 Release of a Radioactive Gas into a Ventilated Room 232 11.6 Compliance 233 11.7 Questions 234 References 241 12 Operational Health Physics 243 12.1 Overview 243 12.2 Radiological Controls 243 12.2.1 Radioiodine 243 12.2.2 Noble Gases 244 12.2.3 Particulates 244 12.2.4 Tritium 245 12.3 Radiation Surveys 245 12.4 Respiratory Protection 246 12.5 Safety Precedence Sequence for Radiation Hazards 248 12.6 Questions 250 References 255 13 Transportation and Waste 257 13.1 Radioactive Waste Overview 257 13.2 Radioactive Waste 257 13.3 Natural Waste Materials 258 13.3.1 Mine Tailings 258 13.3.2 Depleted Uranium 258 13.3.3 NORM 258 13.4 Human-Made Radioactive Waste Materials 259 13.4.1 Fission and Activation Products 259 13.4.2 Source Material and Special Nuclear Material 259 13.4.3 Transuranic Waste 260 13.5 Byproduct Material 260 13.6 Transportation 261 13.7 Definitions 261 13.7.1 Radioactive Material 261 13.7.2 Packaging 264 13.7.3 Vehicles 264 13.7.4 Transport Index 265 13.7.5 Criticality Safety Index 265 13.8 Package Radiation Surveys and Limits 266 13.9 Package Requirements 268 13.9.1 Limited Quantities 268 13.9.2 LSA and SCO Packages 269 13.9.3 LSA and SCO Shipping Requirements 270 13.9.4 Type A 271 13.9.5 Type B 272 13.9.6 Fissile Material 272 13.10 Transport Vehicle Surveys 273 13.11 Placarding and Shipping Papers 273 13.11.1 Placarding 273 13.11.2 Shipping Papers 273 13.12 Questions 274 References 283 14 Nuclear Emergencies 285 14.1 Introduction 285 14.2 Regulatory Guidance 285 14.2.1 Emergency Doses for Radiation Workers 285 14.3 ICRP Emergency Dose Recommendations 287 14.4 Accident Classification 288 14.5 Protective Action Guidelines 289 14.6 Internal Uptakes 290 14.7 Examples of Nuclear Emergencies 291 14.7.1 Three Mile Island 291 14.7.2 Accident Sequence 291 14.7.3 Radioactivity Released to the Environment 291 14.7.4 Summary of Radiation Doses 292 14.7.5 Chernobyl 292 14.8 Intentional Dispersal of Radioactive Materials 294 14.9 Questions 296 References 302 Part IV Specialty Health Physics Areas 305 15 Medical Health Physics 307 15.1 Overview 307 15.2 Diagnostic X-rays and Biological Effects 307 15.2.1 X-ray Production 307 15.3 Radiography 308 15.4 Fluoroscopy 309 15.5 Mammography 309 15.6 Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine 311 15.6.1 Computed Tomography 312 15.6.2 Tracer Studies and Radioisotope Administration 313 15.7 Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine 313 15.7.1 Radionuclide Administration 313 15.8 Medical Accelerator Physics and External Beam Therapy 316 15.9 Brachytherapy 318 15.10 Facility Design 318 15.11 NCRP 49 318 15.11.1 Shielding Design 319 15.11.2 X-ray Shielding 320 15.11.3 Primary Barrier 320 15.11.4 Secondary Barrier 321 15.11.5 Leakage Radiation 321 15.12 NCRP 147 322 15.12.1 Unshielded Air Kerma 323 15.12.2 Shielding Calculations 324 15.13 NCRP 151 325 15.13.1 Primary Barrier 325 15.13.2 Secondary Barriers 326 15.13.3 Scattering 326 15.13.4 Leakage 327 15.14 Management of Radionuclide Therapy Patients 327 15.15 Questions 328 References 335 16 University Health Physics 339 16.1 Overview 339 16.2 Research Utilizing Radionuclides 339 16.2.1 H-3 339 16.2.2 C-14 340 16.2.3 P-32 340 16.2.4 Co-60 340 16.2.5 I-125/I-131 341 16.2.6 Cf-252 341 16.3 Engineering Considerations 342 16.3.1 Engineering Controls 342 16.4 Sample Counting 343 16.5 Other Research Activities 344 16.5.1 Agricultural/Environmental Research 346 16.5.2 Research Reactors 346 16.5.3 Particle Accelerators 347 16.5.4 Materials Research via X-ray Diffraction Techniques 347 16.5.5 Fusion Energy Research 348 16.6 Overview of an Initial Fusion Power Facility 349 16.6.1 General Radiological Characteristics 349 16.7 Questions 350 References 357 17 Fuel Cycle Health Physics 361 17.1 Overview 361 17.2 Common Isotopes 361 17.3 Radiation in Pre-irradiation Fuel Cycle Facilities 361 17.4 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 362 17.4.1 Uranium Fuel Cycle 362 17.4.2 Uranium Ore and Chemical Processing 362 17.4.3 Enrichment 362 17.4.4 Gaseous Diffusion 363 17.4.5 Gas Centrifuge 363 17.4.6 AVLIS 363 17.4.7 Nuclear Fuel 364 17.4.8 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing 364 17.4.9 Thorium Fuel Cycle 365 17.4.10 Open and Closed Fuel Cycles 365 17.5 Radioactive Waste 367 17.6 Criticality 368 17.6.1 Critical Mass 369 17.6.2 Geometry or Shape 370 17.6.3 Enrichment of the Fissile Isotope 370 17.6.4 Moderation and Reflection 370 17.6.5 Neutron Absorbers or Poison Material 370 17.7 Questions 371 References 379 18 Research Reactor Health Physics 383 18.1 Introduction 383 18.2 Radionuclides of Concern 383 18.3 Reactor Types 384 18.3.1 TRIGA® 384 18.3.2 Pool 385 18.3.3 Tank-in-Pool 385 18.3.4 Argonaut Reactors 386 18.3.5 Slowpoke 386 18.4 Research Reactors Operational Characteristics 386 18.5 Reactor Systems and Associated Radionuclide Production 388 18.5.1 Fuel 388 18.5.2 Coolant and Moderator Water 388 18.5.3 Reflectors 388 18.6 Dose Control 389 18.6.1 Biological Shielding 389 18.6.2 H-3 Control 389 18.6.3 N-16 Control 389 18.6.4 Ar-41 Control 390 18.7 Reactor Effluents 390 18.7.1 Gaseous Effluents 391 18.7.2 Liquid Effluents 391 18.8 Questions 391 References 397 19 Power Reactor Health Physics 399 19.1 Overview 399 19.2 Generation I, II, III, and IV Reactors 399 19.3 Power Reactors 401 19.4 Common Power Reactor Radionuclides 401 19.5 Pressurized Water Reactors 402 19.5.1 Core 402 19.5.2 Reactor Vessel 403 19.5.3 Primary Coolant System 403 19.5.4 Steam System 403 19.5.5 Control and Protection Systems 404 19.5.6 Engineered Safety Features 404 19.6 Boiling Water Reactors 405 19.6.1 BWR Reactor Assembly 405 19.6.2 BWR Reactor Core 405 19.7 Candu Reactors 405 19.7.1 General Description 406 19.7.2 Control Systems 406 19.7.3 Steam System 406 19.7.4 Safety Systems 407 19.8 High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors 407 19.9 Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors 407 19.9.1 Fuel Reprocessing 408 19.10 Health Physics Hazards 408 19.10.1 Buildup of Filter or Demineralizer Activity 408 19.10.2 Activation of Reactor Components 409 19.10.3 Cladding Failures 410 19.10.4 Reactor Coolant System (RCS) Leakage 411 19.10.5 Hot Particle Dose 411 19.10.6 NCRP 130 Hot Particle Recommendations 412 19.10.7 Effluents 413 19.11 Radiological Considerations During Reactor Accidents 414 19.11.1 Semi-Infinite Cloud Model 415 19.12 Questions 416 References 426 20 Environmental Health Physics 429 20.1 Overview 429 20.2 Major Radionuclides 429 20.3 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material 430 20.4 Radon 430 20.4.1 Radon Entry and Mitigation 431 20.4.2 Radon Kinetics 431 20.4.3 Radon Units, Exposure, and Dose 432 20.5 Uranium Miner Lung Data 432 20.6 Radon Risk Assessments 433 20.7 Assessing Radon Exposures 433 20.8 Buildup of Radon Inleakage 435 20.9 Environmental Monitoring Programs 435 20.9.1 Preoperational Monitoring 435 20.9.2 Operational Monitoring 436 20.9.3 Instrumentation 436 20.10 Environmental Releases 437 20.10.1 Accumulation of Activity in Ponds and Surfaces 438 20.11 Dispersion of Radioactive Gas from a Continuous Source 439 20.12 Dispersion of Radioactive Particulates from a Continuous Source 441 20.13 Specific Applications of the Dispersion Equations 442 20.14 Pathways Associated with Open and Closed Fuel Cycles 443 20.14.1 Open Fuel Cycles 443 20.14.2 Closed Fuel Cycles 444 20.15 Regulatory Guidance For Effluent Pathways 444 20.16 ICRP 103 Recommendations for the Protection of the Environment 445 20.17 Questions 446 References 452 21 Accelerator Health Physics 457 21.1 Overview 457 21.2 Basic Physics 458 21.3 Accelerator Facility Overview 459 21.3.1 Target/Beam Stop Geometry 459 21.3.2 Target Room 459 21.3.3 Beam Transport 459 21.3.4 Accelerator Complex 460 21.4 Major Isotopes Produced 460 21.5 Accelerator Types 460 21.6 Proton Accelerators 461 21.6.1 Low-Energy Proton Accelerators 461 21.6.2 Van de Graaff Accelerators 461 21.6.3 Cyclotrons 462 21.6.4 High-Energy Proton Accelerators 463 21.6.4.1 Antiprotons 464 21.6.4.2 Proton Reactions 464 21.6.4.3 Neutrons 464 21.6.4.4 Muons 465 21.6.4.5 Hadronic (Nuclear) Cascade 465 21.7 Electron Accelerators 466 21.7.1 Bremsstrahlung 467 21.7.2 Synchrotron Radiation 468 21.7.3 Electromagnetic Cascade 468 21.7.4 Electron Linac 469 21.7.5 Betatrons 470 21.7.6 High-Energy Electron Accelerators 471 21.8 Light Sources 471 21.9 Heavy Ion Accelerators 472 21.10 Muon Colliders 472 21.10.1 Bounding Neutrino Effective Dose – Linear Muon Collider 472 21.10.2 Bounding Neutrino Effective Dose – Circular Muon Collider 473 21.11 Radiation Types of Concern 474 21.12 Residual Radioactivity 474 21.12.1 Activation of Water 475 21.12.2 Activation of the Soil 475 21.12.3 Activation of Air 475 21.13 Shielding 476 21.14 Dose Equivalent From The Accelerator Target 476 21.15 Beam Current 477 21.16 Pulsed Radiation Fields 477 21.17 Questions 478 References 485 22 Non-ionizing Radiation 489 22.1 Overview 489 22.2 Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation 489 22.2.1 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves 491 22.2.2 Antennas 491 22.2.2.1 Stationary Antennas 492 22.2.2.2 Rotating Antennas 495 22.2.3 Attenuation by Biological Systems 495 22.3 Biological Effects 496 22.4 Protection Standards 496 22.5 Laser Radiation 499 22.5.1 Radiometric and Photometric Terms and Units 500 22.5.2 Principles and Properties of the Laser 500 22.5.3 Biological Effects from Laser Radiation 503 22.5.3.1 Eye 503 22.5.3.2 Skin 504 22.6 Laser Regulations and Standards 505 22.6.1 Intrabeam Exposures 506 22.6.2 Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD) 507 22.6.3 Diffuse Reflections 509 22.6.4 Nominal Hazard Zone 510 22.6.5 Skin Exposures 510 22.7 Free Electron Lasers 511 22.8 Federal Regulations 511 22.9 Laser Safety Calculations 512 22.9.1 Limiting Aperture 512 22.9.2 Exposure Time/Maximum Permissible Exposure 512 22.10 Controlling Laser Radiation 514 22.11 Personnel Protective Equipment 515 22.12 Spectral Effectiveness of Ultraviolet Radiation 515 22.13 Questions 516 References 525 Part V Answers and Solutions 529 Answers and Solutions 531 Part VI Appendixes 679 Appendix I Mathematical Review 681 Appendix II Physical Constants 689 Appendix III Particle Properties 691 Appendix IV Supplementary Information for Gamma-Ray Dose Calculations 693 Appendix V Selected Data on Radionuclides and Decay Relationships 700 Appendix VI Electromagnetic and Mechanics Relationships 705 Appendix VII Conversion Factors 710 Appendix VIII Physical Quantities and Their Units 714 Appendix IX Production Equations In Health Physics 718 Subject Index 725

About the Author :
Joseph John Bevelacqua, PhD, CHP, is the President of Bevelacqua Resources. A theoretical nuclear physicist by training, Dr. Bevelacqua is a Certified Health Physicist and Certified Senior Reactor Operator and has over 30 years of professional experience. This experience includes the medical, fuel cycle, accelerator, power reactor, environmental, and non-ionizing areas. He was a key player in the Three Mile Island and Hanford cleanup activities, and is an active researcher with over 75 publications. His research areas include heavy ion cancer therapy, theoretical physics, and health physics applications. He recently received California University's Professional Excellence Award for his accomplishments.