Comprehensive summary of Chalcogenide Nanophotonics, reviewing basic principles, synthesis methods, and cutting-edge applications
Chalcogenide Nanophotonics offers an in-depth exploration of these remarkable materials, covering their fundamental physics, synthesis methods, optical phenomena, and cutting-edge applications in modern photonics. A distinctive feature of this book is its interdisciplinary approach, weaving together materials science, condensed matter physics, and photonic engineering.
Each chapter integrates theoretical frameworks with practical case studies — such as phase-change memory devices leveraging GeSbTe alloys or GST-based metasurfaces for dynamic color displays — to illustrate the symbiotic relationship between material design and device performance. The inclusion of recent breakthroughs, such as van der Waals epitaxy for low-defect heterostructures and UV lithography for scalable metasurfaces, ensures relevance to both academic and industrial audiences.
Chalcogenide Nanophotonics includes information on:
- Electronic band structure and material properties, elucidating how chemical bonding and lattice dynamics govern their optoelectronic behavior
- Intricate mechanisms of thin-film growth, offering insights into epitaxial techniques such as chemical vapor deposition and pulsed laser deposition
- Properties of chalcogenides, covering dielectric functions, Raman spectroscopy, and emission mechanisms
- Chalcogenide-based photonic crystals and metamaterials, showcasing their potential for beam steering, perfect absorption, and chiral light manipulation
- Future challenges and opportunities, from machine learning-driven material discovery to monolithic 3D integration for quantum photonics
Chalcogenide Nanophotonics serves as both a roadmap and an invitation to researchers, engineers, and students alike, encouraging them to harness the infinite potential of chalcogenides.
Table of Contents:
About the Authors xi
Preface xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 1
1.1.1 Basic Definition of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 1
1.1.2 Classification of Chalcogenides 3
1.2 Basic Properties of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 5
1.2.1 Chemical Properties 5
1.2.2 Physical Properties 5
1.2.3 Optical Properties 6
1.2.4 Optical Force 9
1.3 Application of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 10
1.3.1 Optical Communication 10
1.3.2 Optical Storage 11
1.3.3 Sensing Technology 12
1.3.4 Other Applications 14
1.4 Research Progress of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 15
2 Fundamentals of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 17
2.1 Theory of Electronic Band Structure 17
2.1.1 Band Theory 18
2.1.1.1 Free Electron Gas Model 19
2.1.1.2 Bloch’s Theorem 21
2.1.2 Nearly-free Electron Model 24
2.1.2.1 Degenerate Perturbation Theory 26
2.1.2.2 k Not Quite on a Zone Boundary 27
2.1.3 Tight-binding Model in One Dimension 29
2.1.4 Nanoelectronics: Superlattices and Heterostructures 31
2.2 Basic Material Properties 33
2.2.1 Structure Properties 33
2.2.1.1 Crystallinity and Phase Structure 33
2.2.1.2 Surface Morphology and Roughness 34
2.2.1.3 Phase Composition and Structural Units 34
2.2.1.4 Structural Stability and Environmental Durability 34
2.2.2 Electrical Properties 36
2.2.2.1 Density of States 36
2.2.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the d.c. Conductivity 37
2.2.2.3 Drift Mobility and Photoconduction 38
2.2.3 Optical Absorption 40
2.2.4 Other Measurements 43
2.2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat 43
2.2.4.2 Photoemission and Density of States 44
2.3 Synthesis and Characterization of Chalcogenide Film 44
2.3.1 Synthesis of Chalcogenide Film 45
2.3.1.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition 45
2.3.1.2 Thermal Evaporation 48
2.3.1.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition 49
2.3.1.4 Sputtering 49
2.3.2 Structural and Compositional Characterization 50
2.3.2.1 Structural Characterization 51
2.3.2.2 Component Characterization 57
2.3.2.3 Optical Characterization 60
2.3.2.4 Other Photon-detecting Techniques 64
3 Growth of Chalcogenide Films: Mechanisms and Strategies 67
3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition 70
3.1.1 Principle and Process 70
3.1.2 Applications in Chalcogenide Films 71
3.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 73
3.2 Thermal Evaporation 74
3.2.1 Principle and Process 74
3.3 Vacuum Chamber 75
3.4 Pumping System 76
3.5 Substrate 76
3.6 Source 76
3.7 Filament 77
3.8 Voltage Supply 77
3.9 Quartz Crystal 77
3.9.1 Applications in Chalcogenide Films 77
3.9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 79
3.10 Pulsed Laser Deposition 80
3.10.1 Principle and Process 80
3.10.1.1 Laser Beam 81
3.10.1.2 Focusing Lens 82
3.10.1.3 Rotor 82
3.10.1.4 Source and Substrate 82
3.10.1.5 Pumping System 83
3.10.2 Applications in Chalcogenide Films 83
3.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 83
3.11 Sputtering 85
3.11.1 Principle and Process 85
3.11.1.1 Vacuum Chamber 88
3.11.1.2 Substrate and Cathode 88
3.11.1.3 Reactive Gas 88
3.11.1.4 Magnets 88
3.11.1.5 RF Generator 89
3.11.2 Applications in Chalcogenide Films 89
3.11.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 93
4 Optical Properties 95
4.1 Macroscopic Electrodynamics 95
4.1.1 Overview of Electrodynamics in Chalcogenides 96
4.1.2 Application of DFT in the Field of Chalcogenides 100
4.2 The Dielectric Function 112
4.2.1 Measurement Techniques: Ellipsometry and Reflectance 113
4.2.2 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry for Dielectric Function Analysis 116
4.2.3 Optical Bandgap of Chalcogenide Semiconductors 119
4.3 Raman Spectroscopies 121
4.3.1 Principles of Raman Scattering 121
4.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy in Chalcogenide Semiconductors 123
4.3.3 Applications of Raman Spectroscopy in Nanophotonics 127
4.4 Emission Spectroscopies 129
4.4.1 Optical Emission Mechanisms in Chalcogenides 129
4.4.2 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence 131
4.4.3 Quantum Efficiency 137
4.5 Light Scattering Spectroscopies 140
4.5.1 Light Scattering Principles and Techniques 141
4.5.2 Application of Light Scattering in Chalcogenide Nanomaterials 145
5 Chalcogenide Compounds for Optical Communications 147
5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Optical Characters of Chalcogenide Glasses 153
5.2.1 Linear Refractive Index 153
5.2.2 Infrared Transmission Characteristics 158
5.2.3 Photosensitivity Characteristics 166
5.2.4 Nonlinear Characteristic 172
5.3 Preparation Process of Sulfur System Glass Fiber 179
5.3.1 Purification of the Sulfur-series Glass Material 179
5.3.2 Several Methods for the Preparation of Sulfur Glass Fiber 179
5.4 Application 186
5.4.1 Sensing 186
5.4.2 Nonlinear Effects and All-light Treatment 189
6 Integrated Optics and On-Chip Photonic Devices of Sulfide Compounds 195
6.1 Introduction 195
6.2 Chalcogenide Photonic Memory 196
6.2.1 Design of Chalcogenide-Based Photonic Memory 198
6.2.2 Design of Photon Memory Based on Sulfide Compounds 199
6.2.3 Practical Application Cases 207
6.3 Chalcogenide Color Pixels and Displays 212
6.3.1 Working Principle of Color Pixel Display 212
6.3.2 Practical Application Cases 214
6.4 Chalcogenide Waveguide 219
6.4.1 Theoretical Basis for the Characteristics of Chalcogenides and Waveguides 219
6.4.2 Application of Chalcogenides in Waveguides 219
6.5 Discussion 229
7 Chalcogenide Photonic Crystals 231
7.1 Introduction 231
7.2 Chalcogenide PC Platform 232
7.2.1 Introduction to PCs 233
7.2.1.1 Classification of PCs 233
7.2.1.2 Basic Principle of PCs 236
7.2.2 Characteristics of Chalcogenide PCs 240
7.2.2.1 Characteristics of Chalcogenide Materials 240
7.2.2.2 Advantages of Chalcogenide PCs 241
7.2.3 Preparation Process of the Chalcogenide PC Platform 243
7.2.3.1 Preparation Process of One-Dimensional Chalcogenide PC Platforms 243
7.2.3.2 Preparation Process of Two-Dimensional Chalcogenide PC Platforms 243
7.2.3.3 Preparation Process of Three-Dimensional Chalcogenide PC Platforms 244
7.3 Applications 246
7.3.1 Chalcogenide PCFs 246
7.3.2 Chalcogenide PC Cavity 249
7.3.3 Chalcogenide PCWs 252
7.3.4 Chalcogenide Topological PCs 258
7.4 Discussions 260
8 Chalcogenide Metamaterials 263
8.1 Introduction 263
8.2 Chalcogenide Metamaterials Platform 264
8.3 Applications 268
8.3.1 Chalcogenide Optical Switches 268
8.3.2 Chalcogenide Perfect Absorbers 272
8.3.3 Chalcogenide Beam Steering 276
8.3.3.1 Generalized Laws of Reflection and Refraction 277
8.3.3.2 Classification of Chalcogenide Beam Control 278
8.3.4 Chalcogenide Metalens 284
8.3.4.1 Basics of Metalens 284
8.3.4.2 Chalcogenide Metalens 285
8.3.5 Chalcogenide Chiral and Non-chiral Metamaterials 288
8.3.5.1 Chirality 288
8.3.5.2 Applications of Chalcogenide Chiral Metamaterials 288
8.3.5.3 Applications of Chalcogenide Non-chiral Metamaterials 298
8.3.6 Chalcogenide Polarization Converter 303
8.3.7 Chalcogenide Optical Tweezers 306
8.3.7.1 Optical Tweezers 306
8.3.7.2 Chalcogenide Optical Tweezers 308
8.4 Discussions 309
9 Perspectives 311
9.1 Future of Chalcogenide Nanophotonics 311
9.1.1 Advanced Materials for Next-Generation Photonic Devices 311
9.1.2 Chalcogenides in Quantum and Nonlinear Photonics 312
9.1.2.1 Nonlinear Optical Response 312
9.1.2.2 Quantum Photonics 313
9.1.2.3 Challenges in Fabrication and Device Design 313
9.1.3 Integration with Silicon Photonics 313
9.1.3.1 Material Compatibility 313
9.1.3.2 Interface Quality and Device Integration 313
9.1.3.3 Scalability and Fabrication Techniques 314
9.1.3.4 Applications and Future Directions 314
9.2 Challenges in Chalcogenide Nanophotonics 314
9.2.1 Material Quality 314
9.2.1.1 Thin Film Uniformity and Reproducibility 314
9.2.1.2 Defect Control and Optical Loss 315
9.2.1.3 Challenges in Scalable Fabrication 315
9.2.2 Challenges in Micro- and Nanofabrication 315
9.2.2.1 High-Resolution Patterning Techniques 315
9.2.2.2 Process Compatibility and Integration 315
9.2.2.3 Exploration of Novel Processing Methods 316
9.2.3 Thermal Stability 316
9.2.3.1 Optimization of Material Stability 316
9.2.3.2 Thermally Induced Phase Transition Control 316
9.2.3.3 Packaging and Interface Stability 316
9.2.4 Advances in Modulation Mechanisms 316
9.2.4.1 Electric Field Modulation 317
9.2.4.2 Optical and Thermal Control 317
9.2.4.3 Mechanical and Strain Engineering 317
9.3 Conclusion and Outlook 317
9.3.1 Material Optimization and Intelligent Design 318
9.3.2 Advanced Fabrication Processes and Nanoscale Device Integration 318
9.3.3 AI-Driven Adaptive Photonic Systems 319
9.3.4 Expanding Chalcogenide Photonic Technologies for Future Applications 320
9.3.5 The Future of Chalcogenide Nanophotonics 320
References 323
Index 343
About the Author :
Tun Cao is a Professor at the School of Optoelectronic Engineering and Instrumentation Science, Dalian University of Technology, where he serves as the Dean. He is a recipient of the National High-level Talent Program, a member of the Discipline Review Group of the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council, and a Fellow of Optica. His research interests lie in metamaterials, photonic crystals, and optoelectronic devices. He has led a broad portfolio of national and international research projects, including the National Key R&D Program, the Defense Basic Research Enhancement Program, international cooperation initiatives, NSFC programs, and industry-supported projects in the aerospace sector. He has received five ministerial- and provincial-level science and technology awards. Over the past five years, he has published more than 150 SCI-indexed papers in journals such as Science Advances, Advanced Materials, and Physical Review Letters, obtained over 50 granted national invention patents, and facilitated the transfer of two technological achievements.
Ying Su is an Associate Professor at the School of Optoelectronic Engineering and Instrumentation Science, Dalian University of Technology, and a member of Prof. Tun Cao's research group. Her research focuses on opto-electro-thermal devices and their application technologies. She has presided over national and provincial research projects and contributed to major national R&D programs. She has published more than 20 SCI-indexed papers and holds over ten invention patents. Her work has been recognized with the Second Prize of the Technological Invention Award from the Chinese Optical Engineering Society and the Second Prize of the Dalian Technological Invention Award.
Yinghan Li is an Assistant Professor at the School of Optoelectronic Engineering and Instrumentation Science, Dalian University of Technology. She received her B.Eng. from Dalian University of Technology in 2015 and her Ph.D. from the University of Science and Technology of China in 2024. She joined the research group of Prof. Tun Cao at Dalian University of Technology in 2025. Her research focuses on optoelectronic display devices and thin-film technology, with specific interests in solution-based film formation kinetics, fabrication and modification of optoelectronic films, intelligent optical/electrical modulation, and functional coatings for thermal management.
Hongze Gao is an assistant professor at Dalian University of Technology, with a primary research focus on the optical operation of micro- and nano-particles. He received his doctoral degree from Harbin Institute of Technology in 2023. Having published 5 SCI-indexed papers as the first or corresponding author, he has established a solid academic foundation in his research field. His current work centers on the sorting and identification of chiral nano-particles by utilizing opto-fluidic technologies, with targeted applications in biosensing to enable the sensitive and accurate detection of biomarkers.
