Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

Nuclear and Radiochemistry The leading resource for anyone looking for an accessible and authoritative introduction to nuclear and radiochemistry In the newly revised Fourth Edition of Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications, distinguished chemist Jens-Volker Kratz delivers a two-volume handbook that has become the gold standard in teaching and learning nuclear and radiochemistry. The books cover the theory and fundamentals of the subject before moving on the technical side of nuclear chemistry, with coverage of nuclear energy, nuclear reactors, and radionuclides in the life sciences. This latest edition discusses the details and impact of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear disasters, as well as new research facilities, including FAIR and HIM. It also incorporates new methods for target preparation and new processes for nuclear fuel recycling, like EURO-GANEX. Finally, the volumes extensively cover environmental technological advances and the effects of radioactivity on the environment. Readers will also find: An accessible and thorough introduction to the fundamental concepts of nuclear physics and chemistry, including atomic processes, classical mechanics, relativistic mechanics, and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Comprehensive explorations of radioactivity in nature, radioelements, radioisotopes and their atomic masses, and other physical properties of nuclei Practical discussions of the nuclear force, nuclear structure, decay modes, radioactive decay kinetics, and nuclear radiation In-depth examinations of the statistical considerations relevant to radioactivity measurements Written for practicing nuclear chemists and atomic physicists, Nuclear and Radiochemistry: Fundamentals and Applications is also an indispensable resource for nuclear physicians, power engineers, and professionals working in the nuclear industry.

Table of Contents:
Volume 1 Preface vii 1 Fundamental Concepts 1 1.1 The Atom 1 1.2 Atomic Processes 2 1.3 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 4 1.4 Nuclear Decay Types 6 1.5 Some Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry 10 1.5.1 Fundamental Forces 10 1.5.2 Elements from Classical Mechanics 11 1.5.3 Relativistic Mechanics 11 1.5.4 The de Broglie Wavelength 13 1.5.5 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 14 1.5.6 The Standard Model of Particle Physics 15 1.5.7 Force Carriers 19 Reference 20 Further Reading 21 2 Radioactivity in Nature 23 2.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 23 2.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature 26 2.3 Nuclear Forensics 30 References 33 Further Reading 33 3 Radioelements and Radioisotopes and Their Atomic Masses 35 3.1 Periodic Table of the Elements 35 3.2 Isotopes and the Chart of Nuclides 36 3.3 Nuclide Masses and Binding Energies 40 3.4 Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclei 48 3.5 Precision Mass Spectrometry 51 References 56 Further Reading 56 4 Other Physical Properties of Nuclei 59 4.1 Nuclear Radii 59 4.2 Nuclear Angular Momenta 64 4.3 Magnetic Dipole Moments 66 4.4 Electric Quadrupole Moments 69 4.5 Statistics and Parity 70 4.6 Excited States 71 References 72 Further Reading 72 5 The Nuclear Force and Nuclear Structure 75 5.1 Nuclear Forces 75 5.2 Charge Independence and Isospin 78 5.3 Nuclear Matter 82 5.4 Fermi Gas Model 84 5.5 Shell Model 86 5.6 Collective Motion in Nuclei 95 5.7 Nilsson Model 100 5.8 The Pairing Force and Quasi-Particles 104 5.9 Macroscopic–Microscopic Model 106 5.10 Interacting Boson Approximation 108 5.11 Further Collective Excitations: Coulomb Excitation, High-Spin States, Giant Resonances 110 References 116 Further Reading 116 6 Decay Modes 119 6.1 Nuclear Instability and Nuclear Spectroscopy 119 6.2 Alpha Decay 119 6.2.1 Hindrance Factors 124 6.2.2 Alpha-Decay Energies 125 6.3 Cluster Radioactivity 127 6.4 Proton Radioactivity 129 6.5 Spontaneous Fission 132 6.6 Beta Decay 146 6.6.1 Fundamental Processes 146 6.6.2 Electron Capture-to-Positron Ratios 156 6.6.3 Nuclear Matrix Elements 157 6.6.4 Parity Non-Conservation 160 6.6.5 Massive Vector Bosons 162 6.6.6 Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa Matrix 163 6.7 Electromagnetic Transitions 168 6.7.1 Multipole Order and Selection Rules 169 6.7.2 Transition Probabilities 171 6.7.3 Internal Conversion Coefficients 176 6.7.4 Angular Correlations 180 References 183 Further Reading 184 7 Radioactive Decay Kinetics 187 7.1 Law and Energy of Radioactive Decay 187 7.2 Radioactive Equilibria 189 7.3 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium 191 7.4 Transient Radioactive Equilibrium 193 7.5 Half-Life of Mother Nuclide Shorter than Half-Life of Daughter Nuclide 194 7.6 Similar Half-Lives 194 7.7 Branching Decay 196 7.8 Successive Transformations 197 Reference 199 Further Reading 199 8 Nuclear Radiation 201 8.1 General Properties 201 8.2 Heavy Charged Particles (A ≥1) 203 8.3 Beta Radiation 210 8.4 Gamma Radiation 215 8.5 Neutrons 221 8.6 Short-Lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules 226 References 228 Further Reading 228 9 Measurement of Nuclear Radiation 231 9.1 Activity and Counting Rate 231 9.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 235 9.2.1 Ionization Chambers 238 9.2.2 Proportional Counters 239 9.2.3 Geiger–Müller Counters 241 9.3 Scintillation Detectors 242 9.4 Semiconductor Detectors 245 9.5 Choice of Detectors 251 9.6 Spectrometry 253 9.7 Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates 255 9.8 Use of Coincidence and Anticoincidence Circuits 258 9.9 Low-Level Counting 258 9.10 Neutron Detection and Measurement 259 9.11 Track Detectors 260 9.11.1 Photographic Emulsions and Autoradiography 260 9.11.2 Dielectric Track Detectors 262 9.11.3 Cloud Chambers 263 9.11.4 Bubble Chambers 263 9.11.5 Spark Chambers 263 9.12 Detectors Used in Health Physics 263 9.12.1 Portable Counters and Survey Meters 264 9.12.2 Film Badges 264 9.12.3 Pocket Ion Chambers 264 9.12.4 Thermoluminescence Dosimeters 264 9.12.5 Contamination Monitors 265 9.12.6 Whole-Body Counters 265 Reference 265 Further Reading 265 10 Statistical Considerations in Radioactivity Measurements 269 10.1 Distribution of Random Variables 269 10.2 Probability and Probability Distributions 271 10.3 Maximum Likelihood 277 10.4 Experimental Applications 278 10.5 Statistics of Pulse-Height Distributions 280 10.6 Statistical Assessments of Lifetimes in α-Decay Chains of Odd-Z Heavy Elements 282 10.7 Setting Upper Limits when no Counts Are Observed 285 References 285 Further Reading 285 11 Techniques in Nuclear Chemistry 287 11.1 Special Aspects of the Chemistry of Radionuclides 287 11.1.1 Short-Lived Radionuclides and the Role of Carriers 287 11.1.2 Radionuclides of High Specific Activity 289 11.1.3 Microamounts of Radioactive Substances 290 11.1.4 Radiocolloids 294 11.1.5 Tracer Techniques 297 11.2 Target Preparation 298 11.3 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes 304 11.4 Neutron Spectrum in Nuclear Reactors 306 11.4.1 Thermal Neutrons 306 11.4.2 Epithermal Neutrons and Resonances 308 11.4.3 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors 309 11.5 Production of Radionuclides 309 11.5.1 Production in Nuclear Reactors 309 11.5.2 Production by Accelerators 314 11.5.3 Separation Techniques 322 11.5.4 Radionuclide Generators 326 11.6 Use of Recoil Momenta 329 11.7 Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements 337 11.8 Determination of Half-Lives 338 11.9 Decay-Scheme Studies 340 11.10 In-Beam Nuclear Reaction Studies 342 References 356 Further Reading 357 Volume 2 Preface ix 12 Nuclear Reactions 361 12.1 Collision Kinematics 362 12.2 Coulomb Trajectories 364 12.3 Cross Sections 367 12.4 Elastic Scattering 371 12.5 Elastic Scattering and Reaction Cross Section 378 12.6 Optical Model 381 12.7 Nuclear Reactions and Models 383 12.7.1 Investigation of Nuclear Reactions 384 12.7.2 Compound Nucleus Model 384 12.7.3 Precompound Decay 400 12.7.4 Direct Reactions 401 12.7.5 Photonuclear Reactions 403 12.7.6 Fission 404 12.7.7 High-Energy Reactions 414 12.8 Nuclear Reactions Revisited with Heavy Ions 419 12.8.1 Heavy-Ion Fusion Reactions 420 12.8.2 Quasi-Fission 429 12.8.3 Deep Inelastic Collisions 435 12.8.3.1 The 238U+238U Reaction 447 12.8.3.2 Isotope Distributions at Fixed Z Below Z =92 449 12.8.3.3 Bombarding-Energy Dependence of the Deep-Inelastic Collisions 451 12.8.3.4 Isotope Distributions at Fixed Z Above Z =92 454 12.8.3.5 The 238U + 248Cm Reaction 459 12.8.3.6 Comparison of the Element Yields with Diffusion-Model Predictions 461 12.8.4 “Simple” (Quasi-elastic) Reactions at the Barrier 464 12.8.5 “Complex” Transfer Reactions 469 12.8.6 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions, the Phases of Nuclear Matter 475 References 480 Further Reading 484 13 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transmutations 489 13.1 General Aspects 489 13.2 Recoil Effects 490 13.3 Excitation Effects 495 13.4 Gases and Liquids 499 13.5 Solids 502 13.6 Szilard–Chalmers Reactions 506 13.7 Recoil Labeling and Self-labeling 506 References 508 Further Reading 509 14 Influence of Chemical Bonding on Nuclear Properties 511 14.1 Survey 511 14.2 Dependence of Half-Lives on Chemical Bonding 512 14.3 Dependence of Radiation Emission on the Chemical Environment 514 14.4 Mössbauer Spectrometry 522 References 527 Further Reading 528 15 Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Fuel, and Fuel Cycles 531 15.1 Energy Production by Nuclear Fission 531 15.2 Nuclear Fuel and Fuel Cycles 536 15.3 Production of Uranium and Uranium Compounds 541 15.4 Fuel Elements 544 15.5 Nuclear Reactors, Moderators, and Coolants 547 15.6 The Chernobyl and Fukushima Accidents 554 15.7 Reprocessing 561 15.8 RadioactiveWaste 567 15.9 The Natural Reactors at Oklo 576 15.10 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactors 577 15.11 Nuclear Explosives 579 References 580 Further Reading 581 16 Sources of Nuclear Bombarding Particles 585 16.1 Neutron Sources 585 16.2 Neutron Generators 586 16.3 Research Reactors 587 16.4 Charged-Particle Accelerators 589 16.4.1 Direct Voltage Accelerators 591 16.4.2 Linear Accelerators 594 16.4.3 Cyclotrons 596 16.4.4 Synchrocyclotrons, Synchrotrons 598 16.4.5 Radioactive Ion Beams 601 16.4.5.1 FAIR – The Universe in the Lab 601 16.4.5.2 Research at FAIR 602 16.4.5.3 Construction of FAIR 604 16.4.5.4 International Partners 604 16.4.5.5 High Tech for FAIR 604 16.4.6 Photon Sources 605 References 606 Further Reading 606 17 Radioelements 609 17.1 Natural and Artificial Radioelements 609 17.2 Technetium and Promethium 613 17.3 Production of Transuranic Elements 616 17.3.1 Hot-Fusion Reactions 622 17.3.2 Cold-Fusion Reactions 625 17.3.3 48Ca-Induced Fusion Reactions 632 17.3.4 Other Disciplines 638 17.4 Cross Sections 640 17.5 Nuclear Structure of Superheavy Elements 645 17.6 Spectroscopy of Actinides and Transactinides 649 17.7 Properties of the Actinides 652 17.8 Chemical Properties of the Transactinides 667 17.8.1 Prediction of Electron Configurations and the Architecture of the Periodic Table of the Elements 668 17.8.2 Methods to Investigate the Chemistry of the Transactinides 670 17.8.3 Selected Experimental Results 690 References 721 Further Reading 727 18 Radionuclides in Geo- and Cosmochemistry 735 18.1 Natural Abundances of the Elements and Isotope Variations 735 18.2 General Aspects of Cosmochemistry 738 18.3 Early Stages of the Universe 738 18.4 Synthesis of the Elements in the Stars 741 18.4.1 Evolution of Stars 741 18.4.2 Evolution of the Earth 743 18.4.3 Thermonuclear Reaction Rates 744 18.4.4 Hydrogen Burning 746 18.4.5 Helium Burning 747 18.4.6 Synthesis of Nuclei with A <60 748 18.4.7 Synthesis of Nuclei with A >60 748 18.4.7.1 The s- (Slow) Process 749 18.4.7.2 The r (Rapid) Process 749 18.4.7.3 The p (Proton) Process 753 18.5 The Solar Neutrino Problem 754 18.6 Absolute Neutrino Masses 762 18.6.1 m(νμ) from Pion Decay 763 18.6.2 m(ντ) from Tau Decay 763 18.6.3 m(νe) from Nuclear β-Decay 764 18.6.4 The Karlsruhe Tritium Experiment on the Neutrino Mass KATRIN 764 18.7 Interstellar Matter and Cosmic Radiation 765 18.7.1 Interstellar Matter 765 18.7.2 Cosmic Radiation 767 18.7.3 Radionuclides from Cosmic Rays 767 18.7.4 Cosmic-Ray Effects in Meteorites 768 18.7.5 Abundance of Li, Be, and B 769 References 769 Further Reading 770 19 Dating by Nuclear Methods 775 19.1 General Aspect 775 19.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 776 19.3 Terrestrial Mother/Daughter Nuclide Pairs 781 19.4 Natural Decay Series 783 19.5 Ratios of Stable Isotopes 786 19.6 Radioactive Disequilibria 788 19.7 Fission Tracks 788 References 789 Further Reading 790 20 Radioanalysis 793 20.1 General Aspects 793 20.2 Analysis on the Basis of Inherent Radioactivity 794 20.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 796 20.4 Activation by Charged Particles 800 20.5 Activation by Photons 800 20.6 Special Features of Activation Analysis 802 20.7 Isotope Dilution Analysis 805 20.8 Radiometric Methods 807 20.9 Other Analytical Applications of Radiotracers 808 20.10 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation 809 20.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA) 810 20.12 Analysis with Ion Beams 811 20.13 Radioisotope Mass Spectrometry 815 20.13.1 Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) 815 20.13.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 820 20.13.3 Measurements of Ionization Potentials 824 References 830 Further Reading 832 21 Radionuclides in the Life Sciences 837 21.1 Survey 837 21.2 Application in Ecological Studies 838 21.3 Radioanalysis in the Life Sciences 838 21.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies 840 21.5 Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine 841 21.6 Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 843 21.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 844 21.8 Labeled Compounds 844 References 850 Further Reading 851 22 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere 855 22.1 Sources of Radioactivity 855 22.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere 858 22.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of NaturalWaters 861 22.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere 865 22.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere 873 22.6 Speciation Techniques with Relevance for Nuclear Safeguards, Verification, and Applications 878 22.6.1 Redox Reactions, Hydrolysis, and Colloid Formation of Pu(IV) 883 22.6.2 Investigation of the Homologs Th(IV) and Zr(IV) 888 22.6.3 Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Fluorescence 895 22.7 Conclusions 899 References 900 Further Reading 902 23 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 909 23.1 Dosimetry 909 23.2 External Radiation Sources 911 23.3 Internal Radiation Sources 912 23.4 Radiation Effects in Cell 915 23.4.1 BNCT 916 23.5 Radiation Effects in Humans, Animals, and Plants 921 23.6 Non-occupational Radiation Exposure 925 23.7 Safety Recommendations 925 23.8 Safety Regulations 928 23.9 Monitoring of the Environment 932 23.10 Geological Disposal of RadioactiveWaste 933 References 936 Further Reading 937 Index 941

About the Author :
Jens-Volker Kratz is a retired Professor of Nuclear Chemistry at Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany. He obtained his degrees in Chemistry at this university, followed by postdoctoral research with Glenn T. Seaborg at Berkeley. Before moving back to Mainz, he worked as a group leader between 1974 and 1982 at GSI in Darmstadt. He has published 350 scientific articles and two editions of this textbook. For 24 years, he served as editor of Radiochimica Acta. He was nominated Fellow of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and has received numerous prizes, including the Otto Hahn Award.