Guide to European Compressors and their Applications: (European Guide Series (REP))

The one stop complete technical manual and buyers guide for all those in the power, process, gas, petro-chemical, nuclear and water industries. European Compressors & Applications has been designed and written for compressor users.  It has been designed to provide practical information about the outline design, selection, and installation of compressors and how these affect performance. Contains full principles, practice, types of equipment, suitability for application component details, maintenance, manufactures’ information, guidelines for specification and fitting as well as a complete and comprehensive Buyers’ Guide - including contact details for all valve suppliers and manufacturers. Ideal for any plant engineer, plant manager, maintenance manager, designer, specifiers, marketing and sales engineers and others who make buy, sell or fit this equipment. Uniquely comprehensive source of information Heavily illustrated Easy to use The one stop reference for industry Written by engineers for engineers                                             

Table of Contents:
1 Basic principles and compressor types 1 1.1 Gas laws and gas properties 3 1.1.1 Thermodynamic laws and basic gas laws 3 1.1.2 Continuity, Bernoulli's equation, momentum and energy equation 4 1.1.2.1 The continuity equation 4 1.1.2.2 Bernoulli's equation 4 1.1.2.3 The momentum equation 5 1.1.2.4 The energy equation 6 1.1.3 Pipe flow losses 7 1.1.3.1 Reynolds Number 7 1.1.3.2 Head losses in straight pipes 7 1.1.3.3 Head losses in fittings 8 1.1.3.4 Hydraulic diameter 8 1.1.3.5 Total head losses in the pipe system 8 1.1.4 Perfect and real gases 9 1.1.5 Diagrams of gas properties 14 1.1.6 Properties of mixtures 15 1.1.6.1 Mean molar mass 17 1.1.6.2 Effective value of the gas constant 17 1.1.6.3 Mean molar specific heat 17 1.1.6.4 Isentropic exponent of the mixture 17 1.1.6.5 Compressibility of the gas mixture 17 1.1.6.4 Mixture specific volume 18 1.1.7 Mass / volume relationship 18 1.1.8 Principles of compression 18 1.1.9 Polytropic head 19 1.1.10 Polytropic efficiency 20 1.1.11 Power consumption 20 1.2 Basic compressor types 20 1.2.1 Types of compressors 20 1.2.1.1 Rotodynamic compressors 20 1.2.1.2 Positive displacement compressors 20 1.2.2 Compressor terminology and abbreviations 21 1.3 General aspects of rotodynamic compressors 31 1.3.1 Jet compressors 31 1.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 32 1.3.3 Surge and stonewall in rotodynamic compressors 35 1.4 General aspects of positive displacement compressors 35 1.4.1 Basic principles 35 1.4.2 Ideal compression processes 36 1.4.3 Real compression process 36 1.4.4 Mechanical work input 36 1.5 System characteristics and operating points 37 1.6 Multi-staging and intercooling 38 2 Centrifugal compressors - construction and design 39 2.1 General 40 2.2 Construction 40 2.2.1 Impellers 40 2.2.2 Diffusers 41 2.2.3 Multi-staging 41 2.2.4 Intercoolers 41 2.2.5 Compressor casings 42 2.2.6 Shaft and impeller arrangements 45 2.2.6.1 "Overhung" design 45 2.2.6.2 Straight-through design 45 2.2.6.3 Integrally-geared compressor 46 2.2.7 Multi-casing / driver configurations 48 2.2.8 Materials 49 2.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 51 2.3.1 General 51 2.3.2 Number of compression groups 51 2.3.3 Number of impellers per group 55 2.3.4 Power consumption 56 2.4 Operating problems 57 2.4.1 Speed limits 57 2.4.2 Aerodynamic instability 57 2.4.3 Rotating stall 58 3 Axial-flow compressors - construction and design 59 3.1 General 60 3.2 Construction 62 3.2.1 Rotors 62 3.2.2 Stators 63 3.2.3 Materials 63 3.2.4 Variable geometry, multi-staging and blow-off valves 63 3.3 Number of compression groups, number of stages per group and power consumption 63 3.3.1 Number of compression groups 64 3.3.2 Number of stages per group 64 3.3.3 Power consumption 64 3.4 Operating problems 64 3.4.1 Blade vibration 65 3.4.2 Surging 65 3.4.3 Rotating stall 65 4 Reciprocating compressors - construction and design 67 4.1 General 68 4.2 Construction 69 4.2.1 Basic layouts 69 4.2.2 Piston and piston rod sealing 74 4.2.3 Valves 75 4.2.4 Pulsation dampers 75 4.2.5 Materials 76 4.3 Number of compression stages, cylinders per stage and cylinder size 77 4.3.1 Number of compression stages 77 4.3.2 Compressor speed and piston speed and stroke relationships 81 4.3.3 Number of cylinders and cylinder size 81 5 Rotary positive displacement compressors - construction and design 85 5.1 General 86 5.2 Screw compressors 86 5.2.1 Description and operating principle 86 5.2.2 Performance and liquid injection 87 5.3 Roots blowers 88 5.4 Single-lobe compressors 89 5.5 Sliding vane compressors 89 5.6 Liquid ring compressors 90 5.7 Scroll compressors 90 6 Capacity regulation 93 6.1 General 94 6.2 Recycle by-pass control 94 6.3 Discharge control 95 6.4 "On/off" control 95 6.5 Variable speed control 96 6.6 Suction control 98 6.7 Clearance pockets 99 6.8 Step-wise control 99 6.8.1 General 99 6.8.2 Three step control 100 6.8.3 Five step control 100 6.8.4 Multi-cylinder compressors 100 6.9 Variable geometry 100 7 Protection systems 103 7.1 General 104 7.2 Liquid carry-over prevention 104 7.3 Over-pressure protection 105 7.4 Reverse flow protection 105 7.5 Anti-surge protection 106 7.6 Air dryers 107 8 Compressor drivers 109 8.1 General 110 8.2 Electric motor drives 110 8.2.1 Fixed-speed motors 110 8.2.1.1 Torque-speed characteristics 110 8.2.1.2 Direct-on-line starting 112 8.2.1.3 Star-delta starting 112 8.2.1.4 Autotransformer starting 113 8.2.1.5 Soft starting 113 8.2.1.6 PWM variable-speed starting 113 8.2.2 Variable speed drives 114 8.2.3 Current pulsations with reciprocating compressor electric motor drives 114 8.2.3.1 General 114 8.2.3.2 Torque and speed variations 115 8.2.3.3 Torque and current pulsations 116 8.2.3.4 Synchronous motors 117 8.3 Steam turbines 118 8.4 Gas turbines 118 8.5 Turbo-expanders 121 8.6 Internal combustion engines 123 9 Bearings and seals 125 9.1 Bearings 126 9.1.1 General 126 9.1.2 Bearing and shaft problems in rotodynamic compressors 126 9.1.3 Bearing problems in reciprocating compressors 128 9.1.4 Bearing lubrication and life 129 9.1.4.1 Grease lubrication 129 9.1.4.2 Oil lubrication 130 9.1.4.3 Bearing life 131 9.1.5 Special bearings 132 9.2 Process seals 133 9.2.1 General 133 9.2.2 Conventional seals 133 9.2.3 Dry gas seals 134 9.2.3.1 Aerodynamic instability 137 10 Testing 139 10.1 Why test? 140 10.2 Types of tests 140 10.3 Conformity tests 140 10.4 Integrity tests 140 10.5 Operating tests 140 10.6 Performance tests 141 10.7 Recommended tests 142 11 Installation 143 11.1 General 144 11.1.1 Process and maintenance considerations 144 11.1.2 Noise and vibration 145 11.1.2.1 The need for noise control 145 11.1.2.2 Noise from compressors 145 11.1.2.3 Noise from drivers and power transmission elements 145 11.1.2.4 Vibration 146 11.1.2.5 Reciprocating machines 147 11.1.3 Compressors for potentially hazardous areas 147 11.1.3.1 Area classification 147 11.1.3.2 Contribution of compressors to area classification 147 11.1.3.3 Equipment restrictions 147 11.1.3.4 Legislation 148 11.2 Installation configurations 148 11.3 Mountings 149 11.3.1 "Centre-line" mounting 149 11.3.2 Baseplates and foundations 150 11.4 Couplings 151 11.5 Gearboxes 154 11.5.1 General 154 11.5.2 Parallel shaft gears 154 11.5.3 Planetary type gears 155 11.5.4 Gear standards 156 11.6 Alignment 156 11.7 Main plpe connections 156 11.8 Liquid carry-over prevention systems 157 11.9 Service air systems 158 12 Inspection and maintenance 161 12.1 Pre-delivery inspection 162 12.1.1 Transportation and storage 162 12.2 Maintenance 162 12.2.1 General 162 12.2.2 Scheduled maintenance 164 12.2.3 Opportunistic maintenance 165 12.2.4 Condition-based maintenance 165 12.2.5 Breakdown maintenance 165 12.2.6 Recommended maintenance strategies 165 12.2.7 Centrifugal and axial-flow compressors 165 12.2.8 Reciprocating compressors 165 12.3 Condition monitoring 166 12.3.1 General 166 12.3.2 Rotodynamic compressors 167 12.3.3 Reciprocating compressors 167 12.3.4 Rotary type (valve-less) positive displacement compressors 168 13 Compressor selection 169 13.1 General procedure 170 13.2 Compressor type selection 172 13.3 Driver selection 176 13.3.1 Centrifugal or axial-flow compressors 176 13.3.2 Reciprocating compressors 176 13.4 Useful reference specifications 177 13.4.1 Quality standards 177 Why quality standards are needed? 177 The content of quality standards 178 13.4.2 Available specifications 178 13.4.3 Testing standards 179 13.4.4 Safety standards 179 13.4.5 Dimensional standards 179 13.4.6 Material standards 179 14 Typical compressor applications 181 14.1 General 182 14.2 "Oil & Gas" Processes 182 14.2.1 Gas treating for removal of CO2, H2S, COS and mercaptans 182 14.2.2 Recovery and purification of carbon monoxide for use as a chemical feedstock 182 14.2.3 Recovery of elemental sulphur from sour gas 183 14.2.4 Cryogenic gas fractionation used to recover C3 or C2 and higher components 184 14.2.5 Carbon dioxide recovery and purification by cryogenics 184 14.2.6 An improved Claus sulphur recovery unit 185 14.3 Dairy products applications 185 14.3.1 Chilled water 185 14.4 Food processing applications 187 15 Gas properties and other data 189 15.1 Thermodynamic properties of gases 191 15.1.1 General gas and vapour data 191 15.1.2 Table of physical constants 193 15.1.3 Notes and references to Table of physical constants 196 15.2 Pressure/enthalpy charts 201 15.2.1 Nitrogen 201 15.2.2 Carbon dioxide 202 15.2.3 Methane 203 15.2.4 Ethane 204 15.2.5 Ethylene 205 15.2.6 Propane 206 15.2.7 Propylene 207 15.2.8 Iso-butane 208 15.2.9 Normal-butane 209 15.2.10 Iso-pentane 210 15.2.11 Normal pentane 211 15.2.12 Oxygen 212 15.3 Units and conversions 213 15.3.1 SI, The International System of Units 213 15.3.2 Conversion factors for SI units 214 15.3.2.1 Plane angle 214 15.3.2.2 Length 214 15.3.2.3 Area 214 15.3.2.4 Volume 215 15.3.2.5 Time 215 15.3.2.6 Linear velocity 215 15.3.2.7 Linear acceleration 215 15.3.2.8 Angular velocity 215 15.3.2.9 Angular acceleration 215 15.3.2.10 Mass 215 15.3.2.11 Density 216 15.3.2.12 Force 216 15.3.2.13 Torque 216 15.3.2.14 Pressure, stress 216 15.3.2.15 Dynamic viscosity 216 15.3.2.16 Kinematic viscosity 216 15.3.2.17 Energy 217 15.3.2.18 Power 217 15.3.2.19 Volume flow 217 15.3.2.20 Temperature 218 15.3.3 Other conversion factors 218 15.3.3.1 Hardness 218 15.3.3.2 Material toughness 219 15.3.4 Normal quantities and units used within compressor technology 219 16 Useful terms translated 221 17 Classification guide to manufacturers and suppliers 233 17.1 Introduction 234 17.2 Names and addresses - manufacturers and suppliers 235 17.3 Compressor types - manufacturers and suppliers 248 17.4 Ancillary Products and services - manufacturers and suppliers 258 17.5 Trade names - manufacturers and suppliers 261 18 Reference Index 263 Index to Advertisers 272 Acknowledgements 272

About the Author :
Peter Simmons is the editor of Guide to European Compressors and their Applications, published by Wiley. Bryan Edward Nesbitt is an automobile designer and currently head of General Motors Corporation International Operations Design, based in Shanghai, China. Nesbitt is also brand chairman for Wuling and Baojun, two automakers with which GM joint ventures.