Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics: Recent Developments and Future Prospects(ISTE Invoiced)

Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics provides an in-depth understanding of the materials, design choices and applications needed for the mitigation of micro- and nano-plastic pollutants from environmental wastewater. This is a topic that continually attracts attention worldwide. This is an important book for academic institutes and libraries, scientific organizations, and global research industries, and has been created for a wide audience. The book provides the scope of material design, synthesis, detailed mechanisms, spectroscopic analysis, and problem-solving strategies in environmental remediation. The scope of the book on reactive, functional materials and applications extends far beyond the emerging technologies that possess valuable insights of the synthesis, processing and physiochemical characteristics and their functional properties for academics, postgraduates, research scholars, scientists, technologists, environmental chemists and industrialists. This book presents fifteen chapters, which explore new ideas in processing, designing, synthesis, selection, application, photocatalytic efficiency and economic justifications of emerging materials.

Table of Contents:
Foreword xv Youngil LEE Preface xvii Laxman SINGH and Sunil KUMAR Acknowledgments xxi Laxman SINGH and Sunil KUMAR Chapter 1 Micro- and Nano-Plastic Pollution: Present Status on Environmental Issues and Photocatalytic Degradation 1 Monika VERMA, Yashaswini and Sujata KUNDAN 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 MPs and NPs: Sources, impact and health hazards 4 1.2.1 Micro-plastics 4 1.3 Nano-plastics 6 1.3.1 Sources and environmental risks 6 1.4 Impact of Covid-19 on plastic pollution 7 1.5 Methods for plastic degradation 8 1.5.1 Current methods for plastic degradation 8 1.5.2 Emerging solutions for plastic degradation 8 1.6 Conclusion 12 1.7 Future directions for plastic pollution control 12 1.8 References 12 Chapter 2 Metal Oxide-based Smart Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano Plastics 19 Roopam GAUR and Satyendra SINGH 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Metal oxide photocatalysts and their characteristics 21 2.2.1 TiO2 24 2.2.2 ZnO 27 2.2.3 CuO 29 2.2.4 NiO 30 2.3 Conclusion and future prospectives 30 2.4 Acknowledgments 31 2.5 References 31 Chapter 3 WO 3-based Smart Material for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 37 Rachana SAIN and Sudarshan SARKAR 3.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastics 37 3.2 Photocatalytic degradation mechanism 42 3.3 Tungsten trioxide (WO3) 47 3.3.1 (WO3)-based smart materials 48 3.3.2 Synthesis of WO3 -based smart material 49 3.3.3 A few WO3 -based smart materials 51 3.4 Applications and future scope 52 3.5 References 54 Chapter 4 The Chemistry of Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano Plastic 61 Manish KUMAR and Sunil KUMAR 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Micro- and nano-plastic 63 4.3 Carbon nanotube materials 65 4.4 Coating of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 66 4.4.1 TiO2 coating 66 4.4.2 ZnO coating 68 4.5 Functionalized carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials 69 4.5.1 Single wall carbon nanotube 70 4.5.2 Multiwall carbon nanotube 71 4.5.3 Noncovalent endohedral and exohedral functionalization with surfactants 73 4.5.4 Graphene-functionalized carbon nanotube 74 4.6 Hetero atom doping of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation material 75 4.7 Conclusion 76 4.8 References 76 Chapter 5 Environmental Justifications of MXene towards Photocatalytic Capture and Conversion of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 81 Sweta SINGH and Abhijeet KUMAR 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Nanomaterial catalyzed methods for the degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 86 5.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 87 5.4 MXene: a nanomaterial with diverse applications 91 5.5 Important properties of MXenes 93 5.6 Application of MXene as photocatalyst 95 5.7 Application of MXene-based materials for the degradation of organic pollutants 95 5.8 MXene as photocatalyst for degradation of MPs and NPs 96 5.9 Conclusion 97 5.10 References 97 Chapter 6 Metal–Organic Framework based on Functional Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 105 Vinita, Madhu TIWARI, Pravesh Kumar YADAV, Arun Pratap VERMA, Chandrakala SINGH and Sudhakar PANDEY 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 Historical background and discovery of metal–organic frameworks 106 6.3 Bonding in metal–organic frameworks 107 6.4 Dimensionality of metal–organic frameworks 108 6.5 Methods for the synthesis of metal–organic frameworks 109 6.5.1 Ultrasonic synthesis 111 6.5.2 Electrochemical synthesis 111 6.5.3 Mechanochemical synthesis 111 6.5.4 Microwave synthesis 112 6.6 Properties of metal–organic frameworks 112 6.7 Micro- and nano-plastics 113 6.7.1 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 114 6.7.2 Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation 115 6.7.3 Changes in micro-/nano-plastics morphology in photocatalytic degradation 117 6.8 Factors influencing photocatalytic degradation efficiency 117 6.9 Role of micromotors in photocatalytic degradation of MPs/NPs 118 6.10 Photocatalytic water purification: removal of micro- and nano-plastics from water 119 6.10.1 Photocatalytic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate nano-plastics 121 6.10.2 Photodisintegration of emerging pollutants 123 6.11 References 125 Chapter 7 Carbon-based Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-plastics 133 Chandrakala SINGH and Devjani ADHIKARI 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Classification of carbon-based nanomaterials 135 7.2.1 Carbon nanotubes 135 7.2.2 Single-walled carbon nanotubes 136 7.2.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes 137 7.2.4 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes 137 7.2.5 Fullerene 138 7.2.6 Nanodiamonds 138 7.2.7 Carbon dots 139 7.2.8 Graphene 139 7.2.9 Graphene nanoribbons 140 7.2.10 Graphene quantum dots 140 7.3 An overview of photocatalysts’ breakdown of MPs and NPs 145 7.4 Carbonaceous nanomaterials 147 7.4.1 Graphene, RGO (reduced graphene oxide) and GO 147 7.4.2 Carbon nanotubes 147 7.4.3 Nano-graphite 148 7.4 Conclusion 149 7.5 References 149 Chapter 8 Graphene-based Materials for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 159 Geeta SINGH and Preeti GUPTA 8.1 Introduction 160 8.1.1 Overview of micro-plastics 160 8.1.2 Overview of nano-plastics 161 8.1.3 Environmental impact of micro- and nano-plastics 162 8.1.4 Better alternatives to plastics 163 8.1.5 Status of plastic recycling in India with other countries 164 8.2 Graphene-based materials 165 8.3 Structure and characteristics of graphene-based materials 166 8.4 Photodegradation and graphene-based materials 170 8.5 Application of GMBs in removal/degradation/remediation of different pollutants 171 8.6 Photodegradation of micro- and nano-plastics by graphene-based materials 172 8.7 Challenges and future perspectives 173 8.8 Environmental fate of graphene-based materials 173 8.9 Conclusion 174 8.10 References 175 Chapter 9 2D Nanomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 183 Thakur Prasad YADAV and Kalpana AWASTHI 9.1 Introduction 184 9.2 2D materials 185 9.2.1 Graphene family 185 9.2.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides and MXenes 187 9.2.3 Phosphorene 188 9.2.4 Oxides and hydroxide materials 189 9.3 Synthesis of 2D materials 189 9.4 Properties and applications of 2D materials 191 9.5 Application of 2D materials in photocatalytic degradation 192 9.6 Micro- and nano-plastics 194 9.7 Micro- and nano-plastics identification 196 9.7.1 Microscopy: stereo microscopy and dissecting microscopy 196 9.7.2 Fluorescence microscopy 196 9.7.3 Transmission electron microscopy 197 9.7.4 Scanning electron microscopy 198 9.7.5 Atomic force microscopy 199 9.7.6 FTIR spectroscopy 200 9.7.7 Raman spectroscopy 201 9.7.8 Thermal analysis 201 9.7.9 New approaches and new identification strategies 203 9.7.10 Impact of micro- and nano-plastics on human health 203 9.8 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic 204 9.9 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic through 2D materials 204 9.10 Summary and conclusion 206 9.11 Acknowledgments 206 9.12 References 206 Chapter 10 Hybrid 2D-Smart Materials in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 215 Niranjan PATRA, Gudiguntla RAVI, Muddada Jaya SURYA and Akil AHMAD 10.1 Introduction 215 10.2 2D materials: properties and functionalities 217 10.2.1 Electronic properties 217 10.2.2 Optical properties 218 10.2.3 Mechanical properties 218 10.2.4 Thermal properties 219 10.2.5 Chemical properties and functionalization 219 10.2.6 Synergistic effects in hybrid 2D materials 220 10.3 Hybrid 2D-smart materials: design and synthesis 220 10.3.1 Synthesis techniques 221 10.3.2 Examples of hybrid 2D-smart materials 222 10.4 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 222 10.4.1 Initiation of degradation 223 10.4.2 Role of photocatalyst morphology and composition 224 10.4.3 Pathways of degradation 224 10.4.4 Environmental factors and degradation efficiency 225 10.5 Degradation of micro-plastics in marine environments 225 10.5.1 Photocatalytic degradation of nano-plastics in wastewater treatment 228 10.5.2 Integration of photocatalytic coatings in water purification systems 229 10.5.3 Photocatalytic degradation of micro-plastics in agricultural soils 229 10.6 Challenges, limitations and future scopes 230 10.7 Conclusions 232 10.8 References 232 Chapter 11 Design and Structural Modification of Advanced Biomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 241 Nisha MANDLOI, Poonam SHARMA, Aakanksha MEWAL and Ajit Kumar VARMA 11.1 Introduction 242 11.1.1 Plastic pollution: a global challenge 242 11.1.2 Photocatalytic degradation: a green approach 244 11.2 Smart biomaterials: overview and selection criteria 249 11.2.1 Definition and characteristics of smart biomaterials 249 11.2.2 Selection criteria for smart biomaterials 253 11.3 Design principles for enhanced photocatalysis 254 11.3.1 Tailoring optical properties 255 11.3.2 Surface functionalization for targeted activity 258 11.4 Structural modifications for improved efficiency 261 11.4.1 Nanocomposite formation 262 11.4.2 Porosity enhancement 263 11.5 Case studies and applications 265 11.5.1 Titanium dioxide nanomaterials 265 11.5.2 Graphene-based smart biomaterials 267 11.6 Challenges and future perspectives 271 11.6.1 Overcoming biocompatibility concerns 272 11.6.2 Scalability and cost-effectiveness 273 11.6.3 Integration with other remediation techniques 274 11.7 Conclusion 276 11.8 References 276 Chapter 12 Nanocomposites: Sustainable Resources for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 281 Nisha SHANKHWAR, Pinki SINGH, Jewel THOMAS and Satyendra SINGH 12.1 Introduction 282 12.1.1 Addressing environmental challenges with nanocomposites 282 12.2 Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 283 12.3 Nanocomposites in environmental remediation 284 12.3.1 Understanding nanocomposites 284 12.3.2 Enhanced mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties 285 12.3.3 Nanocomposite composition and structure 285 12.4 Synthesis of nanocomposites 286 12.4.1 Synthesis techniques 287 12.4.2 Optimization of synthesis parameters 287 12.5 Photodegradation mechanisms 288 12.5.1 Mechanism of photocatalytic reaction 289 12.5.2 Energy absorption and electron–hole pair generation 289 12.5.3 Charge aggregation and surface migration 289 12.5.4 Redox reactions at the interface 289 12.5.5 Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in an oxygen-rich atmosphere 289 12.5.6 Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in an inert atmosphere 290 12.6 Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic degradation 290 12.6.1 Titanium dioxide and modified composites 291 12.6.2 Zinc oxide and modified composites 292 12.6.3 Zirconium dioxide and modified composites 293 12.6.4 Tungsten trioxide and modified composites 293 12.6.5 Carbon nitride-based composites 293 12.6.6 Perovskite-like materials 293 12.7 Photodegradation efficiency 293 12.7.1 Light absorption 294 12.7.2 Electron–hole pair generation 295 12.7.3 Reactive oxygen species formation 295 12.7.4 Interaction with micro- and nano-plastics 295 12.7.5 Mineralization 295 12.8 Applications and case studies 295 12.8.1. Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic pollution control 296 12.8.2 Application in photodegradation 296 12.9 Challenges and considerations/future directions 297 12.9.1 Future vistas and emerging trends 297 12.9.2 The power of cross-disciplinary collaboration 297 12.10 Conclusion 298 12.11 Acknowledgments 298 12.12 References 298 Chapter 13 Fabrication of Plant/Biogenic-based Metallic Nanomaterials for Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 301 Preeti GUPTA and Geeta SINGH 13.1 Introduction 301 13.2 Environment and micro- and nano-plastics 304 13.3 Role of nanomaterials in micro- and nano-plastics 306 13.4 Plant/biogenic metallic nanomaterials 307 13.4.1 Characterization technique involved in nanomaterials 309 13.4.2 Properties of nanomaterials 309 13.5 Degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 310 13.6 Conclusion and future prospectives 312 13.7 References 313 Chapter 14 Efficiency of Hybrid Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics 319 Vaishali GUPTA and Satyendra SINGH 14.1 Introduction 320 14.2 Behavior of micro- and nano-plastics 323 14.3 Objective of the chapter 324 14.4 Global plastic production 324 14.5 Photocatalytic degradation 325 14.6 Hybrid smart materials for degradation of microand nano-plastics 327 14.7 Conclusions and suggestions for the future 335 14.8 References 335 Chapter 15 Surface Modifications of BiVO 4 Semiconductor Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic 341 Nikita YADAV, Vaishali GUPTA and Ojasvi SAINI 15.1 Introduction to micro- and nano-plastic pollution 342 15.1.1 Overview of micro- and nano-plastic pollution: a growing environmental concern 342 15.1.2 Definition and classification 343 15.1.3 Occurrence and distribution of micro- and nano-plastic in environmental matrices 348 15.2 Semiconductor photocatalysis in environmental remediation: fundamentals and principles 349 15.2.1 Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation 350 15.2.2 Factors influencing photocatalytic efficiency 352 15.2.3 Role of semiconductors in environmental clean-up 353 15.3 Role of BiVO 4 in photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics 354 15.3.1 Introduction to BiVO 4 semiconductors 354 15.3.2 Significance of BiVO 4 in photocatalysis 355 15.3.3 Advantages and limitations of BiVO 4 for this application 356 15.4 Surface modifications of BiVO₄ for enhanced catalytic activity 358 15.4.1 Overview of surface modification techniques 358 15.4.2 Chemical modifications: metal and nonmetal doping and co-catalyst deposition 359 15.4.3 Physical modifications 360 15.4.4 Hybrid and composite materials 361 15.4.5 Advances in surface modification technologies 362 15.5 Applications and challenges in real-world scenarios 364 15.5.1 Practical applications in micro- and nano-plastic degradation 364 15.6 Conclusion 366 15.7 References 367 List of Authors 371 Index 375

About the Author :
Laxman Singh is Head and Associate Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Siddharth University, Siddharthnagar, India, and has research and teaching experience in Materials Chemistry. He has published more than 60 research articles in well-reputed international science journals. Sunil Kumar is Senior Assistant Professor and Head of the Department of Chemistry at L.N.T. College, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, India, and has seven years of teaching experience. His research interests include synthesis and processing of functional polyurethanes, redox polymers, gel polymer electrolytes, nanomaterials, composites and many others.