From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire

Around 550 B.C.E. the Persian people—who were previously practically unknown in the annals of history—emerged from their base in southern Iran (Fars) and engaged in a monumental adventure that, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great and his successors, culminated in the creation of an immense Empire that stretched from central Asia to Upper Egypt, from the Indus to the Danube. The Persian (or Achaemenid, named for its reigning dynasty) Empire assimilated an astonishing diversity of lands, peoples, languages, and cultures. This conquest of Near Eastern lands completely altered the history of the world: for the first time, a monolithic State as vast as the future Roman Empire arose, expanded, and matured in the course of more than two centuries (530–330) and endured until the death of Alexander the Great (323), who from a geopolitical perspective was “the last of the Achaemenids.” Even today, the remains of the Empire-the terraces, palaces, reliefs, paintings, and enameled bricks of Pasargadae, Persepolis, and Susa; the impressive royal tombs of Naqsh-i Rustam; the monumental statue of Darius the Great-serve to remind visitors of the power and unprecedented luxury of the Great Kings and their loyal courtiers (the “Faithful Ones”). Though long eclipsed and overshadowed by the towering prestige of the “ancient Orient” and “eternal Greece,” Achaemenid history has emerged into fresh light during the last two decades. Freed from the tattered rags of “Oriental decadence” and “Asiatic stagnation,” research has also benefited from a continually growing number of discoveries that have provided important new evidence-including texts, as well as archaeological, numismatic, and iconographic artifacts. The evidence that this book assembles is voluminous and diverse: the citations of ancient documents and of the archaeological evidence permit the reader to follow the author in his role as a historian who, across space and time, attempts to understand how such an Empire emerged, developed, and faded. Though firmly grounded in the evidence, the author’s discussions do not avoid persistent questions and regularly engages divergent interpretations and alternative hypotheses. This book is without precedent or equivalent, and also offers an exhaustive bibliography and thorough indexes. The French publication of this magisterial work in 1996 was acclaimed in newspapers and literary journals. Now Histoire de l’Empire Perse: De Cyrus a Alexandre is translated in its entirety in a revised edition, with the author himself reviewing the translation, correcting the original edition, and adding new documentation. Pierre Briant, Chaire Histoire et civilisation du monde achémenide et de l’empire d’Alexandre, Collège de France, is a specialist in the history of the Near East during the era of the Persian Empire and the conquests of Alexander. He is the author of numerous books. Peter T. Daniels, the translator, is an independent scholar, editor, and translator who studied at Cornell University and the University of Chicago. He lives and works in New York City.

Table of Contents:
List of Illustrations Preface to the English Translation Translator’s Preface Introduction: On the Trail of an Empire 1. Was There an Achaemenid Empire? 2. From Alexander to Cyrus and Back Again: Fragments of ego-histoire 3. The Historian and His Evidence 4. Space and Time To the Reader Acknowledgments Prologue: The Persians before the Empire 1. Why Cyrus? 2. The Founder Legends 3. The Kings of Ansan 4. Ansan and Susa 5. Persian Society before the Conquests: Herodotus and Archaeology 6. Ansan, Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa 7. From the Medes to the Persians 8. Conclusion Part 1: The Empire-Builders: From Cyrus to Darius Chapter 1. The Land-Collectors: Cyrus the Great and Cambyses (559-522) 1. Medo-Persian Hostilities, the Defeat of Astyages, and the Fall of Ecbatana (553-550) 2. The New International Situation and Cyrus’s Projects 3. The Defeat of Croesus and the Establishment of a Mediterranean Front 4. Cyrus in Central Asia 5. The Capture of Babylon (539) 6. Cyrus, Trans-Euphrates, and Egypt 7. From Cyrus to Cambyses 8. The Egyptian Campaign (525-522) 9. Cambyses and the Egyptian Traditions Chapter 2. The Conquest and After: An Interim Summary 1. From Cyrus to Darius: Sources and Problems 2. Satraps and Satrapies 3. Tributes and Gifts 4. Continuities and Adaptations: The Case of Babylonia 5. From Bactra to Sardis 6. Persians and Conquered Populations 7. The Seats of Power 8. Royalty and Authority 9. The King and the Gods 10. Bardiya’s Usurpation (522) Chapter 3. Trouble, Secession, and Rebuilding (522-518) 1. Darius Comes to Power (522) 2. Revolts and Reconquests (522-518) 3. The Aftermath of Victory: The Official Story 4. Darius and the Six 5. Summary and Perspectives Chapter 4. Darius the Conqueror (520-486) 1. The Pursuit of Territorial Expansion (520-513) 2. The Persians in Europe 3. The Ionian Revolt (500-493) 4. From Thrace to Memphis (492-486) Part 2: The Great King Chapter 5. Images of the World 1. The Builder-King 2. The King and His Peoples: Inscriptions and Iconography 3. An Idealized Image of Space and Imperial Power 4. Images and Realities: The King among His Peoples 5. Images and Realities: The Imperial Festivals 6. Royal Table and Royal Paradise: Exaltation of the Center and Appropriation of Space Chapter 6. Representations of Royalty and Monarchic Ideology 1. Sources and Problems 2. The Prince in His Own Mirror 3. The King in Majesty 4. The Good Warrior 5. The King, the Earth, and the Water 6. Between Men and Gods Chapter 7. People and Life at Court 1. Sources and Problems 2. Household Staff 3. The Eunuchs 4. The Women’s Side 5. At the Great King’s Table 6. The Royal Hunts 7. Royal Pomp Chapter 8. The King’s Men 1. The Giving King 2. Unequal Exchange 3. The King and His Faithful: The Rationale of the System 4. The King and His Faithful: The Dynamic of the Contradictions 5. King and Satraps 6. The King and His Faithful: The Persians, the Greeks, and the Others 7. Achaemenid Royalty and Persian Aristocracy Part 3: Territories, Populations, and the Dependent Economy Chapter 9. Territories, Communication, and Trade 1. The Network of Roads 2. Control of the Imperial Territory 3. Lines of Communication and Trade Chapter 10. Royal Assessments and Tribute 1. Sources and Problems 2. Satrapies and Tributes 3. Gifts and Tribute 4. Tributes, Gifts, and Assessments 5. Payments of Tribute: Metal and Coin 6. The Administration of Tribute: Continuities and Adaptations 7. Tribute Economy and Appropriation: Royal Land and Tribute Land Chapter 11. Persia: Empire and Tribute Economy 1. The Persepolis Archives 2. Administrative Hierarchy and Organization of Production 3. The World of Work: The kurtas 4. Agriculture: Produce and Levies 5. Lands and Estates 6. The Persepolis Tablets and the Imperial Administration: Sources and Problems 7. The Management of Property and the Royal Warehouses in Egypt 8. Management of Surpluses 9. Lands and Peasants 10. The King’s House 11. Transition Chapter 12. The King of the Lands 1. Darius and Egypt 2. Babylonia under Darius 3. Trans-Euphrates 4. From Jerusalem to Magnesia on the Meander 5. Western Asia Minor: Cities, Dynasts, and Empire after the Ionian Revolt 6. Population Resettlement and Deportation 7. Unity and Diversity Part 4: From Xerxes to Darius III: An Empire in Turmoil Chapter 13. Xerxes the Great King (486-465) 1. Sources and Problems 2. From Darius to Xerxes 3. From Sardis to Sardis (480) 4. Xerxes between Two Fronts (480-479) 5. The Persian Defeat: Its Causes and Consequences 6. Xerxes and His Peoples 7. Xerxes, Ahura-Mazda, and Persia 8. Athenian Offensives and Royal Territories (478-466) 9. Xerxes’ Western Strategy 10. From Xerxes to Artaxerxes 11. An Assessment Chapter 14. From the Accession of Artaxerxes I to the Death of Darius II (465-405/404) 1. One King after Another (465) 2. The Egyptian Revolt (ca-454) 3. Trans-Euphrates Matters 4. The Asia Minor - Eastern Aegean Front 5. Ezra and Nehemiah in Jerusalem 6. One King after Another (425-424) 7. Affairs on the Western Front 8. The Great King in His Countries Chapter 15. Artaxerxes II (405/404-359/358) and Artaxerxes III (359/358-338) 1. The Reign of Artaxerxes II: Sources and Problems 2. The War of the Two Brothers (404-401) 3. Artaxerxes the Victor 4. Conditions in Asia Minor and Artaxerxes II’s Strategy (400-396) 5. Agesilaus in Asia Minor (396-394) 6. Achaemenid Successes and Failures: From Asia Minor to Egypt (ca - ca) 7. Artaxerxes II, His Satraps, and His Peoples (ca-359/358) 8. At the Heart of Power 9. The Wars of Artaxerxes III (351-338) Part 5: The Fourth Century and the Empire of Darius III in the Achaemenid longue durée: A Prospective Assessment Chapter 16. Lands, Peoples, and Satrapies: Taking Stock of the Achaemenid World Introduction: In the Steps of Alexander and on the Trail of Darius 1. Sources and Problems 2. The Satrapy of Dascylium 3. From Sardis to Ephesus 4. From Celaenae to Halicarnassus 5. Pixodarus at Xanthus 6. From Tarsus to Mazaca 7. From Tarsus to Samaria via Sidon and Jerusalem 8. From Gaza to Petra 9. Egypt from Artaxerxes III to Darius III 10. From Arbela to Susa 11. The Great King, Alexander, and the Peoples of the Zagros Mountains 12. Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Persia 13. From Persepolis to Ecbatana 14. From Ecbatana to the Halys 15. From Ecbatana to Cyropolis 16. From the Punjab to the Indus Delta 17. From Pattala to Susa and Babylon: The Persians and the Persian Gulf 18. An Appraisal and Some Questions Chapter 17. The Great King, His Armies, and His Treasures 1. The Accession of Darius III 2. The Great King and the Persian Aristocracy 3. The Royal Armies 4. Subject Populations and Tribute Economy 5. Transition Part 6: The Fall of an Empire (336-330) Chapter 18. Darius and the Empire Confront Macedonian Aggression 1. Territories, Armies, and Strategies 2. Darius and His Faithful 3. The Local Elites, Darius, and Alexander: Popularity and Unpopularity of Achaemenid Dominion 4. The Death of a Great King (330) 5. The Fall of an Empire Conclusion: From Nabonidus to Seleucus Research Notes List of Abbreviations Bibliography Indexes Index of Sources Index of Personal Names Index of Divine Names Index of Geographical Names Index of Ancient Words Index of Topics 1180

About the Author :
Pierre Briant, Chaire Histoire et civilisation du monde achemenide et de l'empire d'Alexandre, College de France, is a specialist in the history of the Near East during the era of the Persian Empire and the conquests of Alexander. He is the author of numerous books. Peter T. Daniels, the translator, is an independent scholar, editor, and translator who studied at Cornell University and the University of Chicago. He lives and works in New York City.

Review :
"...this is a magnificent history of the Persian Empire. In my opinion, it is a model of history writing. Briant wrestles with all the problems we have in trying to write a history of the times, does not reject sources out of hand but handles everything critically, and makes clear the basis of his own opinions. If I can do half as well in my own history of Persian-period Judah, I would be well satisfied." --Reviewer: Lester L. Grabbe of the University of Hull in Review of Biblical Literature 05/2003 "Briant's From Cyrus to Alexander is, without question, the most compendious, complete, up-to-date, and ground-breaking history of the Persian Empire yet to appear. No serious research into the Persian period can proceed without taking Briant's thorough analyses into account... [This book] must now be considered the primary source for Persian history and historiographical research. No other resource can compare to this volume's coverage and analysis of the period's difficult historical issues. Briant deftly uses a myriad of ancient and modern sources to weave a most fascinating historical portrait of the Persian Empire." --Reviewer: John W. Betlyon of Penn State University in BASOR 330 (2002) "Book Reviews" "The history of the first Persian Empire was long known only from the distorted picture given in the Old Testament and in the works of classical authors. From the second half of the last century this traditional picture has been slowly changing thanks to new archaeological and written sources. In 1996 P. Briant presented a new interpretation of Achaemenid history based on an analysis of primary sources and on a discussion of secondary sources. It is not a narrative history of the Persian Empire, but rather a deep analysis of the character of Achaemenid rule over large territories marked by great ethnocultural diversity and a variety of forms of local organization. The author critically approaches many long held opinions by confronting various, often conflicting sources. This monumental work, first published in French, is now available in an excellent English translation." --Jana Pecirkova, Archiv orientalni 71 2003