Confectionery and Chocolate Engineering: Principles and Applications

In contrast to the common technology-focused approach to this subject, this volume offers a scientific, theoretical account of confectionery manufacture, building on the scientific background of chemical engineering. It describes the features of unit operations used in confectionery manufacturing. The large diversity of both raw materials and end products in the confectionery industry makes it beneficial to approach the subject in this way. By characterizing the unit operations, the author opens up new possibilities for improvement and efficiency for anyone involved in the production of confectionery worldwide.

Table of Contents:
Preface Acknowledgements Part I Theoretical introduction Chapter 1 Principles of food engineering 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Damkohler equations 1.3 Investigation of the Damkohler equations by means of similarity theory 1.4 Analogies 1.5 Dimensional analysis 1.6 The Buckingham PI theorem Further reading Chapter 2 Characterization of substances used in the confectionery industry 2.1 Qualitative characterization of substances 2.2 Quantitative characterization of confectionery products 2.3 Preparation of recipes Chapter 3 Engineering properties of foods 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Density 3.3 Fundamental functions of thermodynamics 3.4 Latent heat and heat of reaction 3.5 Thermal conductivity 3.6 Thermal diffusivity and Prandtl number 3.7 Mass diffusivity and Schmidt number 3.8 Dielectric properties 3.9 Electrical conductivity 3.10 Infrared absorption properties 3.11 Physical characteristics of food powders Further reading Chapter 4 The rheology of foods and sweets 4.1 Rheology: its importance in the confectionery industry 4.2 Stress and strain 4.3 Solid behaviour 4.4 Fluid behaviour 4.5 Viscosity of solutions 4.6 Viscosity of emulsions 4.7 Viscosity of suspensions 4.8 Rheological properties of gels 4.9 Rheological properties of sweets 4.10 Rheological properties of wheat flour doughs Further reading Chapter 5 Introduction to food colloids 5.1 The colloidal state 5.2 Formation of colloids 5.3 Properties of macromolecular colloids 5.4 Properties of colloids of association 5.5 Properties of interfaces 5.6 Electrical properties of interfaces 5.7 Theory of colloidal stability: the DLVO theory 5.8 Stability and changes of colloids and coarse dispersions 5.9 Emulsion instability 5.10 Phase inversion 5.11 Foams Further reading Part II Physical operations Chapter 6 Comminution 6.1 Changes during size reduction 6.2 Rittinger's 'surface' theory 6.3 Kick's 'volume' theory 6.4 The third, or Bond, theory 6.5 Energy requirement for comminution 6.6 Particle size distribution of ground products 6.7 Particle size distributions 6.8 Kinetics of grinding 6.9 Comminution by five-roll refiners 6.10 Grinding by a melangeur 6.11 Comminution by a stirred ball mill Further reading Chapter 7 Mixing/kneading 7.1 Technical solutions to the problem of mixing 7.2 Power characteristics of a stirrer 7.3 Mixing-time characteristics of a stirrer 7.4 Representative shear rate and viscosity for mixing 7.5 Calculation of the Reynolds number for mixing 7.6 Mixing of powders 7.7 Mixing of fluids of high viscosity 7.8 Effect of impeller speed on heat and mass transfer 7.9 Mixing by blade mixers 7.10 Mixing rolls 7.11 Mixing of two liquids Further reading Chapter 8 Solutions 8.1 Preparation of aqueous solutions of carbohydrates 8.2 Solubility of sucrose in water 8.3 Aqueous solutions of sucrose and glucose syrup 8.4 Aqueous sucrose solutions containing invert sugar 8.5 Solubility of sucrose in the presence of starch syrup and invert sugar 8.6 Rate of dissolution Further reading Chapter 9 Evaporation 9.1 Theoretical background - Raoult's law 9.2 Boiling point of sucrose/water solutions at atmospheric pressure 9.3 Application of a modification of Raoult's law to calculate the boiling point of carbohydrate/water solutions at decreased pressure 9.4 Vapour pressure formulae for carbohydrate/water solutions 9.5 Practical tests for controlling the boiling points of sucrose solutions 9.6 Modelling of an industrial cooking process for chewy candy Further reading Chapter 10 Crystallization 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Crystallization from solution 10.3 Crystallization from melts 10.4 Crystal size distributions 10.5 Batch crystallization 10.6 Isothermal and non-isothermal recrystallization 10.7 Methods for studying the supermolecular structure of fat melts 10.8 Crystallization of glycerol esters: Polymorphism 10.9 Crystallization of cocoa butter 10.10 Crystallization of fat masses 10.11 Crystallization of confectionery fats with a high trans-fat portion 10.12 Modelling of chocolate cooling processes and tempering Further reading Chapter 11 Gelling, emulsifying, stabilizing and foam formation 11.1 Hydrocolloids used in confectionery 11.2 Agar 11.3 Alginates 11.4 Carrageenans 11.5 Furcellaran 11.6 Gum arabic 11.7 Gum tragacanth 11.8 Guaran gum 11.9 Locust bean gum 11.10 Pectin 11.11 Starch 11.12 Xanthan gum 11.13 Gelatin 11.14 Egg proteins 11.15 Foam formation Further reading Chapter 12 Transport 12.1 Types of transport 12.2 Calculation of flow rate of non-Newtonian fluids 12.3 Transporting dessert masses in long pipes 12.4 Changes in pipe direction 12.5 Laminar unsteady flow 12.6 Transport of flour and sugar by air flow Further reading Chapter 13 Pressing 13.1 Applications of pressing in the confectionery industry 13.2 Theory of pressing 13.3 Cocoa liquor pressing Further reading Chapter 14 Extrusion 14.1 Flow through a converging die 14.2 Feeders used for shaping confectionery pastes 14.3 Extrusion cooking 14.4 Roller extrusion Further reading Chapter 15 Particle agglomeration: Instantization and tabletting 15.1 Theoretical background 15.2 Processes of agglomeration 15.3 Granulation by fluidization 15.4 Tabletting Further reading Part III Chemical and complex operations: Stability of sweets Chapter 16 Chemical operations (inversion and caramelization), ripening and complex operations 16.1 Inversion 16.2 Caramelization 16.3 Alkalization of cocoa material 16.4 Ripening 16.5 Complex operations Further reading Chapter 17 Water activity, shelf life and storage 17.1 Water activity 17.2 Shelf life and storage 17.3 Storage scheduling Further reading Chapter 18 Stability of food systems 18.1 Common use of the concept of food stability 18.2 Stability theories: types of stability 18.3 Shelf life as a case of marginal stability 18.4 Stability matrix of a food system Part IV Appendices Appendix 1 Data on engineering properties of materials used and made by the confectionery industry A1.1 Carbohydrates A1.2 Oils and fats A1.3 Raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products Appendix 2 Solutions of sucrose, corn syrup and other monosaccharides and disaccharides Appendix 3 Survey of fluid models A3.1 Decomposition method for calculation of flow rate of rheological models A3.2 Calculation of the friction coefficient xi of non-Newtonian fluids in the laminar region A3.3 Generalization of the Casson model A3.4 Determination of the exponent n of the flow curve of a generalized Casson fluid A3.5 Dependence of shear rate on the exponent n in the case of a generalized Casson fluid A3.6 Calculation of the flow rate for a generalized Casson fluid A3.7 Lemma on the exponent in the generalized Casson equation Further reading Appendix 4 Fractals A4.1 Irregular forms - fractal geometry A4.2 Box-counting dimension A4.3 Particle-counting method A4.4 Fractal backbone dimension Further reading Appendix 5 Introduction to structure theory A5.1 General features of structure theory A5.2 Attributes and structure: A qualitative description A5.3 Hierarchical structures A5.4 Structure of measures: A quantitative description A5.5 Equations of conservation and balance A5.6 Algebraic structure of chemical changes A5.7 The technological triangle: External technological structure A5.8 Conserved substantial fragments Appendix 6 Technological Lay-outs Further reading References Index

About the Author :
Professor Ferenc Mohos is Managing Director of Food Quality 1992 Ltd, Budapest, Hungary