Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology

Retaining the comprehensive and in-depth approach that cemented the bestselling first edition's place as a standard reference in the field, the Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, Second Edition features new and updated material that keeps it at the vanguard of today's most dynamic and rapidly growing field. Iconic experts Robert Doering and Yoshio Nishi have again assembled a team of the world's leading specialists in every area of semiconductor manufacturing to provide the most reliable, authoritative, and industry-leading information available. Stay Current with the Latest Technologies In addition to updates to nearly every existing chapter, this edition features five entirely new contributions on… Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) materials and devices Supercritical CO2 in semiconductor cleaning Low-κ dielectrics Atomic-layer deposition Damascene copper electroplating Effects of terrestrial radiation on integrated circuits (ICs) Reflecting rapid progress in many areas, several chapters were heavily revised and updated, and in some cases, rewritten to reflect rapid advances in such areas as interconnect technologies, gate dielectrics, photomask fabrication, IC packaging, and 300 mm wafer fabrication. While no book can be up-to-the-minute with the advances in the semiconductor field, the Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology keeps the most important data, methods, tools, and techniques close at hand.

Table of Contents:
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; John R. Hauser Introduction Overview of MOS Device Characteristics MOSFET Device Scaling Manufacturing Issues and Challenges MOSFET Gate Stack Issues Advanced MOS Device Concepts Conclusions References OVERVIEW OF INTERCONNECT-COPPER AND LOW-κ INTEGRATION; Girish A. Dixit and Robert H. Havemann Introduction Dual Damascene Copper Integration Copper/Low κ Reliability Conclusion References SILICON MATERIALS; Wen Lin and Howard Huff Introduction Silicon Crystal Growth Processes Characteristics of Czochralski Silicon Growth Trends in Large Diameter Silicon Growth Wafer Preparation Epitaxial Growth Oxygen Behavior in Silicon Processing Other and New Applications of Silicon Materials Summary References SOI MATERIALS AND DEVICES; Sorin Cristoloveanu and G.K. Celler Introduction SOI Basics: A Tutorial SOI Wafer Fabrication Methods-Some Details Advanced Wafer Engineering Physical Characterization of SOI Wafers Electrical Characterization Partially Depleted SOI MOSFETs Fully Depleted SOI MOSFETs Scaling Trends Multiple-Gate SOI MOSFETs MEMS and Photonic Applications of SOI Conclusions Acknowledgements References SURFACE PREPARATION; Glenn W. Gale, Brian K. Kirkpatrick, and Frederick W. Kern Jr. RCA Clean Electrochemistry The Chemistry of Aqueous Solutions SC-1 Complexing Particle Removal Particle Adhesion Particle Removal-Chemical Undercutting Particle Removal-Electrophoretic Effects and DLVO Theory Particle Removal-Megasonics Wet Chemical Etching Oxide Etch Hydrofluoric Acid and Metallic Contamination Defects Related to Drying Polysilicon Etch Selective Nitride Etch Oxide/Nitride Etch Bulk Organic Removal/Photoresist Strip Photolithography Sulfuric/Oxidizer Chemistry Reaction Mechanism Sulfuric/Peroxide (PIRANHA) DI/OZONE Surface Preparation and Cleaning for Interconnect Subtractive Aluminum Interconnect Key Subtractive Aluminum Cleaning Challenges with Associated Defects Copper/Low-κ Dual Damascene Interconnect Key Cu/Low-κ Challenges with Associated Defects Typical Defects Control and Monitoring of Surface Treatment Processes References SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE IN SEMICONDUCTOR CLEANING; Mohammed J. Meziani, Pankaj Pathak, and Ya-Ping Sun Introduction Supercritical Fluids Supercritical CO2 Cleaning Processes Processing Equipment Conclusions and Perspectives References ION IMPLANTATION; Michael Ameen, Ivan Berry, Walter Class, Hans-Joachim Gossmann, and Leonard Rubin Introduction Ion Implant Physics and Materials Science Applications of Ion Implantation Commercial Ion Implantation Equipment Process Control in Ion Implantation References DOPANT DIFFUSION; Sanjay Banerjee Introduction Definition of Point Defects Thermodynamics of Defects Migration and Diffusion of Point Defects Fick's Laws of Diffusion Equilibrium Formulation for Dopant Diffusion Non-Equilibrium Formulation for Dopant Diffusion Diffusion in Strained Silicon Conclusions and Future Research Acknowledgments References OXIDATION AND GATE DIELECTRICS; C. Rinn Cleavelin, Luigi Colombo, Hiro Niimi, Sylvia Pas, and Eric M. Vogel Introduction to Oxidation and Gate Dielectric Technology Oxidation Theory Oxidation Interactions Numerical Modeling of Oxidation Metrology of Dielectric Films Gate Dielectrics Summary References SILICIDES; Christian Lavoie, Francois M. d'Heurle, and Shi-Li Zhang Scope of the Chapter Introduction Development Trends of Silicide Nickel Silicide for Contacts and Interconnections Metal Gate and Schottky Barrier Source-Drain Summary Acknowledgments References RAPID THERMAL PROCESSING; P.J. Timans Introduction RTP System Hardware and Control Technology Semiconductor Processing Using RTP Conclusion Acknowledgments References LOW-κ DIELECTRICS; Ting Y. Tsui and Andrew J. McKerrow Introduction Channel Crack Failures Elastic Constraint Effects Pattern Layout Effects Environmental Effects Conclusion References CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION; Li-Qun Xia and Mei Chang Introduction: What Is CVD and Why CVD Basic Aspects of CVD CVD System Design CVD Thin Films References ATOMIC LAYER DEPOSITION; Thomas E. Seidel Introduction ALD Origins Chemical Processes ALD System Technology Applications Summary of Current Status and Outlook Acknowledgments References PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION; Stephen M. Rossnagel Introduction and Semiconductor Applications Sputtering Background and Basics PVD Systems Applications and Variations for Interconnect Applications Summary, Future Directions References DAMASCENE COPPER ELECTROPLATING; Jonathon Reid Introduction Fundamentals of Electroplating Damascene Cu Electroplating Chemistry Damascene Film Deposition Modeling Capabilities Process Integration Process Control Approaches Acknowledgments References CHEMICAL-MECHANICAL POLISHING; Gregory B. Shinn, Vincent Korthuis, Gautum Grover, Simon Fang, and Duane S. Boning Introduction Equipment and Consumables Mechanisms and Models Applications and Issues Post-CMP Clean References OPTICAL LITHOGRAPHY; Gene E. Fuller Introduction Patterning Basics Optics for Manufacturing Exposure Tool System Considerations Resolution Enhancement Techniques Manufacturing Considerations Recent Advances in Optical Lithography Patterning Roadmaps Summary References PHOTORESIST MATERIALS AND PROCESSING; César M. Garza, Will Conley, and Jeff Byers Formation of the Relief Image Formation of a Relief Image in Novolac-Based Photoresists Formation of the Relief Image in Chemically Amplified Resists ArF Materials, Immersion Lithography, and Extension of ArF References PHOTOMASK FABRICATION; Syed A. Rizvi and Sylvia Pas Introduction Photomask: Structure and Fabrication Writing Patterns on Masks Materials and Processing Photomask Qualification Manufacturability and COO References PLASMA ETCH; Peter L.G. Ventzek, Shahid Rauf, and Terry Sparks Introduction Technical Basics of Plasmas Relevant to Plasma Etching 65-90 nm CMOS Etch Process Modules The Next Generation-45-32 nm Technology Nodes Nanotechnology-22 nm and Beyond Modeling of Plasma Etching Processes References EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY; Vallabh H. Dhudshia Introduction Reliability Metrics Calculations Applications of Reliability Metrics Confidence Limits Calculations Precise Use of the Reliability Metrics Maintainability Metrics High-Level Equipment Performance Metrics An Example of Reliability and High Level Performance Metrics Calculations Four Steps to Better Equipment Reliability Reliability Testing Use of Equipment Reliability Discipline in Business Practices SEMI E10 References OVERVIEW OF PROCESS CONTROL; Stephanie Watts Butler Introduction to Control of Systematic Yield Loss The Control-Type Categories History of Process Control in Semiconductor Manufacturing Characterization of Control Needs in Semiconductor Manufacturing Basic Concepts of all Control Techniques Specific Abnormality Detection and Control Methods Specific Compensation Control Methods Monitoring the Supervisory Run-to-Run Controller and the Controller System (APC) Continuous Process Improvement Summary Acronyms and Glossary References Further Reading IN-LINE METROLOGY; Alain C. Diebold Introduction Metrology for Lithography Processes: Critical Dimension Measurement and Overlay Control Metrology for Front End Processes Interconnect Process Control In-FAB FIB Acknowledgments References IN-SITU METROLOGY; Gabriel G. Barna and Brad VanEck Introduction Process State Sensors Wafer-State Sensors Measurement Techniques for Potential Sensors Software for In-Situ Metrology Use of In-Situ Metrology in SC Manufacturing References YIELD MODELING; Ron Ross and Nick Atchison Introduction Cluster Analysis Yield Models Yield Limits Summary References YIELD MANAGEMENT; Louis Breaux and Sean Collins Introduction Sources and Types of Random Defects Yield Management Methodology Summary References ELECTRICAL, PHYSICAL, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION; Dieter K. Schroder, Bruno W. Schueler, and Greg S. Strossman Introduction Electrical Characterization Physical and Chemical Characterization References FAILURE ANALYSIS; Lawrence C. Wagner Introduction Failure Site Isolation Physical Analysis Tools Chemical Characterization Future of Failure Analysis References RELIABILITY PHYSICS; J.W. Mcpherson and E.T. Ogawa Introduction Accelerated Testing Time-to-Failure Modeling Time-to-Failure Statistics Failure Rate Acceleration Factor Time-to-Failure Models for Selected ULSI Failure Mechanisms Time-Dependent Dielectric Breakdown Summary and a Look into the Future References EFFECTS OF TERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS; Robert Baumann Background-Motivation and Terminology The Terrestrial Radiation Environment Radiation Effects on Semiconductor Devices Technology Scaling Trends Commercial Mitigation Techniques Summary References INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT PACKAGING; Michael Lamson, Andreas Cangellaris, and Erdogan Madenci Introduction Electronic Packaging Challenges Electrical Modeling and Behavior of Packages Hygro-Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Packages References 300 MM WAFER FAB LOGISTICS AND AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS; Leonard Foster and Devadas Pillai Introduction Wafer and Reticle Metrics, Carriers, and Tracking Systems Interbay Transport and Storage Intrabay Transport and Storage Material Control System AMHS Reliability and Maintainability Requirements Anomaly Handling Use of Computer Simulation for Designing and Operating AMHS AMHS Implementation and Related Considerations Extendibility and Scalability of AMH Systems Appendix References Further Reading FACTORY MODELING; Samuel C. Wood Objectives: How is Factory Modeling Used? Static Modeling Dynamic Modeling Acknowledgments References ECONOMICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING; G. Dan Hutcheson Introduction Market and Manufacturing Dynamics Moore's Law Economic Effects and How Manufacturing Fits In Economic Models The Learning Curve The Technology Treadmill Technological Driving Forces Factory and Equipment Economics APPENDIX A: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS APPENDIX B: UNITS CONVERSION APPENDIX C: STANDARDS COMMONLY USED IN SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING APPENDIX D: ACRONYMS INDEX