Forest Ecology and Ecosystem Management

Table of Contents:
EXPANDED TABLE OF CONTENTS. "FOREST ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT". I. INTRODUCTION. Chapter 1. Scope and Importance of Forest Ecology (J. Fralish). . A general introduction including various definitions and basic concepts. Definitions: Forest ecology, science, interrelationships, species, populations, communities, environment. Relationship to plant, terrestrial, aquatic and global ecology. Levels of integration (atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, individual, population, community, landscape and ecosystem, hierarchy). Scope of forest ecology: questions to be answered. Forest ecology as a science and as an environmental (problem solving) approach. Problems of the resource manager. Importance of applying forest ecology concepts; silvics and silviculture. Chapter 2. History of Forest Ecology and Concepts (J. Fralish). A brief listing of the development of forest ecology terminology, concepts, and theory. which is integrated with that of plant ecology. Research hot topics. Early Scientists and concepts: Haeckel, Schimper, Warming, Cooper, Cowles, Clements, Weaver. Individualistic Concept (Gleason 1935). Ecosystem (Tansley 1935). Eastern Deciduous Forest (Braun 1950). Climax concept (Whittaker 1953). Plant life history studies; continuum concept and gradient analysis (Curtis 1960; Whittaker 1959). Forest Ecology Research Topics of 1960s and 1970s: Ecosystem concept -- IBP, biomes, and Hubbard Brook 1964; nutrient cycling (Bormann and Likens 1975); community ecology and succession; pollination ecology; fire ecology. Forest Ecology Research Topics of Late 1970s and 1980s: Biomass and nutrient pools (1978-1983); seedbanks; plant population biology; mycorrhizal relationships; ecological Land Classification (Habitat Typing); community succession and management; old growth and management; presettlement vegetation; landscape ecology and fragmentation; gap dynamics; disturbance and patch dynamics; air pollution and community response. Plant Ecology Research Topics of. mid 1980s to 2005. History of ecosystem concept; Tansley 1935; Clement's quasiorganism. International Biological Program; research. Global warming; ecological land classification; conservation biology and biodiversity, restoration ecology; woody dead material; soil carbon dioxide sequestering; community ecology and management; ecosystem management and sustainability; invasive species, geographic information systems (GIS).. . . . II. THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT 1:. OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. Chapter 3. Introduction to the Forest Environment. (J. Fralish). Introduction. Importance of distinguishing between operational vs. non-operational environmental factors. Brief coverage of abiotic factors: climate (solar radiation, precipitation, temperature, wind, etc.), soil (texture, bulk density, depth, moisture, available water holding capacity, nutrients), fire (intensity, periodicity, timing, type of vegetation, etc.). Biotic factors: Other plants (competition for water and nutrients, physical interference, allelopathy), microorganisms (mycorrhizal relationships, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, parasitism-insects and disease).. Definitions: forest regions/biomes, macroclimate, mesoclimate, forest regions, soil groups. Interaction between macroclimate, microclimate, forest/plants, and soil. A short review of the macroclimate, soil and tree species of major forest regions. This chapter develops the basis for relating forest regions and associated soil groups to macro- and mesoclimatic patterns. Chapter 4. Macroclimate and Mesoclimate (J. Fralish). A review of basic climate concepts with emphasis on how macro (continental) and meso (mountain, water body) patterns have determined the location of various vegetation biomes and formations, particularly the forest regions of North America. Climate and weather defined. Macroclimate defined; macro-climate-vegetation-soil interaction model. Importance--macroclimate determines location of forest regions, deserts, prairie, arctic, etc. The climate-biome model. Major macroclimatic factors: solar radiation, precipitation, temperature, wind, relative humidity and evapotranspiration. Macroclimate of North America. Solar radiation and development of primary circulation cells; convection; advection. High and low pressure systems. Differential heating of land and water surfaces. Centers of actions--origin and classification of air masses; continental vs. maritime climate. Mesoclimate: Modification of air mass characteristics. Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains--due point, orographic precipitation, rain shadow, wet and dry lapse rates; heat of vaporization; Foehn (Chinook) and Santa Anna winds. Great Lakes effects-beech and maple south and east. Mixing with other air masses from Canada and Gulf of Mexico. Climatic patterns of forested regions--P/E ratios; Thornthwaite approach (actual and potential evapotranspiration; soil water balance); Holdridge model; other classification approaches. Link forest regions and subregions to maco- and mesoclimatic patterns across North America. Map of North American forest regions, short list of major tree species and community types in each region. While concentrating on North America, similar climatic and forest patterns will be shown for other regions of the northern hemisphere; e.g., the climate , soil, and forests of the circumpolar boreal (spruce-fir) forest of Scandinavia and Northern Russia; the deciduous forest of southeastern China which is similar to southeastern United States (over 45 similar genera), Western Europe. Global climatic change and its projected effect. Chapter 5. Microclimate (J. Fralish). Emphasis on how the microclimate of a given site (area. Microclimate defined; site environment. The forest plant as a soda straw between the soil and the atmosphere. Major microclimate factors: solar radiation, temperature, wind, relative humidity and evapotranspiration. Direct solar radiation; wave lengths and energy of the solar beam; absorption by the tree leaf; avoidance of heat load; use of infrared radiation to monitor tree/forest health or determine land use. Solar radiation budget--Gate's models. Quanti-fying direct solar radiation (DSR). Langleys; Angle of Incidence Factors determining amount of DSR reaching a site. Factors determining amount of DSR reaching a site; tables of Langleys for aspect, % slope, latitude and season of year combinations. Effect of altitude, time of day, topographic shading, type of vegetation and cloud cover on radiation quantity and quality. Aspect-% slope-latitude interaction to determine the hottest (poorest) and coolest (best) sites from Central America to Canada. Effect on evapotranspiration (ET, rate of water lost from the soil reservoir). Slope position; solar window; conditions for an "open window" and heat loss from ridgetops; cold air drainage into valleys or low sites; effect on ET; frost pockets and muskeg in northern hardwood-conifer and spruce-fir forests; effect on growth and forest composition; apple and peach orchards on ridgetops; windthrow and cradle topography; germination of hemlock and yellow birch on stumps, logs and knolls; germination of sugar maple in cradles and depressions; seed germination temperatures. Wind; destructive forces; speeds within the canopy; effect on evapotranspiration. Relative humidity; temperature dependent; variation from night to day; vapor pressure deficit; effect on evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration--integrating the microclimatic factors; rate of water loss/unit time from forest sites; forest growth and community composition differences across the landscape; examples from the central hardwoods, Appalachians, Rocky Mountain conifer forests and other regions. Examples of forest growth and community composition differences across the landscape; examples from the central hardwoods, Appalachians, Rocky Mountain conifer forests and Europe. Chapter 6. Forest Soil (J. Schoonover and J. Fralish). . An introduction to the five soil-forming factors variation in forest soil development, characteristics, and type. A comparison of forest soil with agricultural soil. A concentration on soil properties that determine soil available water holding capacity and available nutrients. A review of the soil biotic component with emphasis on the importance of earthworms, mycorrhizae, and other microbial processes. Tree growth and community composition will be related to available soil water and nutrients also are emphasized using examples from research. . Soil defined. Forest soil vs. agricultural soil. Importance--water, nutrients, anchorage, root growing space. Composition--mineral, organic matter, air, water. Physical properties (texture, stoniness, bulk density, layers impermeable to roots (hardpan, fragipan, bedrock. Estimating soil available water capacity (AWC); pressure plate methods; regression models to quantify AWC (%); estimating AWC for horizons and the profile (integrating soil physical properties; range of values. Relationship of forest biomass, basal area and species distribution to AWC gradient (Northern Hardwood and Central Hardwood regions). Cation exchange capacity--clay minerals; isomorphic substitution; nutrient retention, calculating nutrient levels for horizons and for the profile. Effect of water table depth on forest growth and species composition. Soil forming factors--process of podzolization and development of forest soil horizons; climate. parent material, vegetation (hardwood vs. conifer vs. prairie), topography, and time. Podzols and podzolized soils vs. lateritic soils. Add animals to list of soil forming factors- soil insects, earthworms, larger animals, micro-organisms. Plant and animal soil processes on soil development and fertility; rhizosphere, arbuscular mycorrhizae symbiosis, mutualism, bacteria and root nodules; other microbial activity, particulate organic matter equilibrium and decomposition, decomposers, mineralization, nitrogen transformations, effect of earthworms on plants and seedling establishment. Parasitic fungi. Modern classification of soils, review of soil orders--soil, climate, vegetation relationships model. Surface organic layers and classification. Maps of North American soil orders and suborders. Organic soils and classification. Chapter 7. Site Concept (J. Fralish). . Integrating the effects of integrating operational environmental factors such as macroclimate, microclimate, topography and soil into various combinations that create a physical site environment. Includes a consideration of site quality determination and classification. . Site defined. Site conditions; physiographic site types, operational environment. Soil/microclimate/ community relationships/interaction. Site quality evaluation for timber, recreation, water, wildlife, special uses (e.g., rare/endangered species). Timber--tree growth; stem analysis; site index; site index curves; biological growth curves; density effect; habitat typing. Predicting site quality using regression analysis. III. THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT 2:. HISTORICAL ECOLOGY, FIRE, & DISTURBANCE. Chapter 8. Basic Concepts and Disturbance Types (C. Ruffner). . An ecological view of disturbance as a natural necessary phenomenon. Includes a review of the range of common and potential disturbance types, their effects, and how settlement has changed the impact (or lack of it) on the forest over time. Define: Disturbance; perturbation; reduction of competition. Definitions of disturbance regime characteristics: Types, endogenous vs. exogenous causes, distribution, frequency, return interval, rotation period, predictability, magnitude (intensity) severity, synergism (White and Picket 1985), spatial and temporal influences. Patch dynamics. Effect on biodiversity (normal curve). Models for examining the effect of disturbance. Impacts of: Wind (tornadoes, hurricanes); animals (trampling, grazing); disease; insect defoliation, girdling, and burrowing; climatic fluctuations-global warming; drought; flooding; tree falls, natural death. Effect of deer browsing on native herbs. Documenting historical disturbance--early explorers records, country land use records; original land survey records, tree ring analysis (dendrochronology). Case studies; effects; recovery time. Chapter 9. Fire (Historical) Ecology (C. Ruffner). A review of fire, its beneficial and pervasive influences and uses. Fire--historical view; fire in presettlement time; level of disturbance. Fire return times and cycles. Physical/chemical process. Chemical composition of fuel. Ignition temperatures. Products/ residuals. Types of fire: ground; surface, crown. Uses of fire in management: control invading/ exotic species, open forest to increase light penetration for regeneration; reduce fuel loading; open mineral seedbed; stimulate plant sprouting response (vegetative reproduction); stimulation of flowering; scarification of seed coats, seed dispersion (early opening vs. serotinous cones); increased germination. Effect of fire regime: diversity, stability, resistance and resilience. Biogeochemical consequences (nutrient budgets, mineralization, mobilization). Fire (disturbance) dependent community (cover) types in forest regions of North America. . IV. THE INDIVIDUAL PLANT--STRUCTURE & FUNCTION. . Chapter 10. Leaf Structure and Function (J. Zaczek). . A review of leaf function and the physiological basis for ecological characteristics: spring growth; maximum productivity; shade tolerance; drought tolerance; stress tolerance and avoidance. . Overview. Leaf structure: Epidermis; guard cells; spongy mesophyll, palisade parenchyma; vascular system; cell structure; organelles. Photosynthesis: Structure of chloroplasts; stroma, grana thykaloids; pigments (Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotinoids, chlorophyll a/b protein-light harvesting complex); light (biochemical; temperature independent) and dark (physical, temperature dependent) reactions; Q10; NADHP; ATP; sugars and carbohydrates. Factors that induce stress (reduce photosynthesis and growth; change in photosynthate reallocation): 1) Light (diurnal cycle, sun leaves and leaves of shade intolerant species vs. those of shade tolerant species; compensation point; light saturation. point; silvicultural operations; sudden exposure; acclimation); 2) temperature; 3) soil water (drought tolerance vs. drought avoidance mechanisms, water potential, water column) 4) carbon dioxide level; 5) air pollution; 6) secondary mortality agents. Use of remote sensing to detect stress and mortality in trees/forests. Respiration: structure of mitochrondria; generating and use of energy; temperature dependence. Deciduous vs. evergreen habit; nutrient retranslocation. Chapter 11. Stem Structure and Function (J. Zaczek, J. Phelps). A review of stem structure and architecture as determined by internal hormonal and external environmental controls. Overview. General stem structure. Meristems: apical (height growth); lateral (cambium, radial growth); cork cambium (bark characteristics). Bud types: apical; lateral; suppressed-effect of auxin; effect of light and crown size on epicormic branching. Apical control: Auxin; stem/crown form: decurrent; deliquescent; excurrent; stem architecture through reiteration. Stem: Cross-sections of typical hardwood and conifer stems; xylem (transport and storage of photosynthate); phloem (transport of water and nutrients); rays. Cell types and tissues: Vessels; fibers; tracheids; parenchyma; intrusive growth; sapwood (relationship to leaf area); heartwood; growth rings. Growth Substances: auxin produced by developing leaves; determinate vs indeterminate growth; effect of auxin on lateral growth; cell size in early wood vs. late wood; diffuse porous vs. ring porous wood; effect of slope steepness-geotropism; reaction (tension, compression) wood; canopy gaps and light; asymmetrical crown development; effect on increment cores and growth rate. Damage to cambium: girdling; fire; callus tissue. Bark development. Chapter 12. Root Structure and Function (J. Zaczek, J. Schoonover, J. Fralish). The contribution of roots to tree growth, the effect of soil characteristics on root development, and the importance of mycorrhizae. Overview. General functions: absorption; anchorage; storage; synthesis of amino acids. General root structure: Epidermis, cortex; endodermis, Casparian strip; xylem; phloem; root hairs; root cap. Growth: primary and secondary growth; radial growth; elongation; lateral roots; root grafts; adventitious buds; replacement roots (low auxin + high kinetin = root formation); root suckers or shoots (high auxin + low kinetin = shoot formation). Absorption of water as a physical phenomenon; absorption of nutrients (soil cation exchange sites, Casparian strip, active transport--energy needed). Mycorrhizae relationships (absorption system: extends the volume of soil utilized by roots, VAM). Root nodules: root + symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria; woody species involved. Root types: plate, heart, tap roots; variation by species; effect of soil characteristics on development (hardpan, fragipan, stoniness, water table). . V. SPECIES GENECOLOGY AND AUTECOLOGY. Chapter 13. Genecology (J. Zaczek). . The application of genetic (species) concepts to forest species with orientation toward management practices including tree improvement, cloning, grafting; vegetation reproduction, seed orchards, hybridization, introgression, genetic engineering and acquired climatic adaptations. Genecology defined. Species defined. Flexibility defined; genetic variation. Types of variation. Phenotypic variation (shade vs. sun leaves in woody species). Genotypic variation: 1) Race (Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine); 2) variety (ponderosa pine, southern red-cherrybark oak; bald-pond cypress); taxonomic splitters vs. lumpers; 3) ecotype; species with large geographic distribution (white oak) or occurs on two distinct site conditions (jack pine; northern white cedar; bur oak); local adaptation; speciation and diversity; practical importance; restriction on moving nursery planting stock long distances. Hybridization defined: examples in nature (recognized oak hybrids, lodgepole-jack pine, eastern cottonwood-other cottonwoods, black-red spruce, longleaf-loblolly pine). Introgression: powerful evolutionary process; backcross between hybrid and parent; black-blackjack oak; American chestnut research; disease resistance; genetic engineering. Fitness defined: maintenance of the species; geographic separation; mechanical specialization; timing differential; gene or chromosome incompatibility; sterility of hybrids; no intermediate habitats for hybrids. Fitness-flexibility compromise. Genetic gain/improvement: provenance testing; superior tree program; grafting ramets; seed orchards; sprouting; clones. Selection processes and results of favorable and unfavorable selection. Chapter 14. Autecology (J. Fralish and J. Zaczek). . Delineation of species ecological concepts with emphasis on species response to moisture and light; gradient. . . Autecology definition and scope. Autecological attributes: Range (botanical, commercial). Law of ecological recourse. Shade tolerance: Defined; tolerance rating categories; light gradient; species response curves = gaussian curves; species by category; physical characteristics (crown density, height of lower live branches, seedling survival and growth in understory), chemical characteristics-ref. to light compensation and saturation points. Site requirements; distribution along more than one gradient (water and light; water and nutrients). Response to stress: avoidance vs. tolerance. Drought tolerance: Defined; xerophyte (tolerant); mesophyte (intolerant; moisture demanding); moisture intermediate species; moisture gradient; species response curves (ecological amplitude, fundamental niche). Hydrophyte (synonym: anerobophyte). Phreatophyte. Relationship between shade tolerance and drought tolerance or moisture demanding characters in species (most xerophytes are shade intolerant; most mesophytes are shade tolerant, climax species).. . Chapter 15. Ecological Life History and Phenology of Trees (J. Fralish).. A consideration of individual growth, development and adaptations from germination through the life cycle and into population ecology. Ecological life history: Defined; reproduction (parent age, flower development, pollination ecology; pollen release, pollen distribution (vectors), pollination, fertilization, seed set, seed size--r and k selected species and intermediates, seed dormancy; seed dispersal, viability period, seedling establishment, seedling growth, insect/disease problems). Other survival mechanisms: Root collar sprouting and root sprouts, serotinous cones, thick heat resistant bark,. . dormancy = grass stage, seed storage = seed banks. Leaf area index and live sapwood relationships; stem biomass; allometric equations for predicting biomass. Population biology: Growth and regulation of populations; selection; survival rates and survivorship curves; cohort life history tables; age and structure related to shade tolerance; density dependent factors (mortality, fecundity); aging as influenced by site quality and its effect on membrane integrity; secondary mortality agents. . VI. THE FOREST COMMUNITY. Chapter 16. Community Characteristics (J. Fralish). . Communities considered in the abstract and as an entity with emphasis on characteristics and structure. This chapter also develops uses specific examples for demonstrating the relationship between forest tree species characteristics, communities, and soil-site relationships. Community concept defined: Clements vs. Curtis/Whittaker. Attributes: Stratification (life form; Raunkiaer's classification?; stem size; crown position classes); community as an entity (stand) and in the abstract; stand defined (age, composition, development, condition). Competition: intraspecific; interspecific; changes in competition along soil moisture and light gradients. Evenaged vs. unevenaged stands. Populations, metapopulations; island biogeography. Dynamics: Relationships between species (competition, interference, commensalism, mutualism, etc.); competition removed by disturbance; species realized niche vs. fundamental niche; obligate pioneer vs. facultative pioneer (Fralish 1988); invasion patterns from dry and wet sites; gap phase regeneration; self-thinning rule; continuum (coenoclines) of compositional stable and successional forests; structural changes; changes in species number (diversity), basal area and biomass along the gradient; response of herbs to canopy gaps. Chapter 17. Forest Community Dynamics and Replacement (Succession). A review of long-term and short-term of community replacement processes centered around species ecological attributes and environmental conditions. Definition of succession, historical perspective and ecologists, Cowles, Cooper, Clements, Cain, allogenic succession-external factors; long-term environmental change over decades- xerosere, hydrosere; over centuries-presettlement communities, autogenic succession- internal factors; short-term change, community replacement, effect of species drought and shade tolerances, critical attributes; relationship between critical attributes and site conditions; law of competitive exclusion; limiting factors and compositional stability, dynamic stability; specific examples of succession. . . Chapter 18. North America Forest Regions and Community Types (Scott Franklin). A synopsis of the climate, soil, and cover types of major forest regions. Introduction. Forest regions, climatic patterns and parameters. A brief description of the forest community (cover) types/associations, climate, physiographic provinces and soil). Northern Spruce-Fir (Boreal) Forest). Northern Hardwood-Conifer Forest: 1) Great Lakes Section; 2) New England Section. Lowland Forest (of Northern Spruce-Fir and Northern Hardwood-Conifer Regions). Appalachian Mixed Hardwood-Conifer Forest. Central Hardwood Forest. Southeastern Pine-Hardwood Forest. Bottomland Forest (of Central Hardwoods and Southeastern Pine Hardwoods). Southern and Central Rocky Mountain Conifer Forest. Northern Rocky Mountain Conifer Forest. West Coast Mountain Forest: 1) Southern Section; 2) Northern Section. Chapter 19. Community Sampling and Data Analysis (S. Franklin and J. Fralish). . Optional chapter or may be shortened depending on space. . An introduction to the methods for sampling, summarizing and analyzing community and environmental data to identify relationships and patterns. Includes a review of gradient analysis and classification. Community sampling procedures. Community selection: delineating boundaries; homogeneity; size; age; amount of disturbance. Sampling system: quadrat; size; shape; location; nested. Types of raw data: species; stem count; size (stem diameter, height); cover. Types of summarized data: density (stems/ha); basal area (m2/ha); species importance values, compositional (continuum) index; similarity index. Environmental sampling procedures. Soil: profile description; soil depth, rooting depth; horizon samples for bulk density, texture and nutrients. Topography: aspect (azimuth, transformations); elevation, slope position, distance to opposing slope).. Statistical summary of data. Relating community and environmental data using regression analysis. Simple linear regression; multiple linear regression; type of data; minimum number of samples; forward and backward stepwise procedures; F-ratios; r and coefficient of determination; plotting residuals; validating model with independent data set; variation accounted for; interpretation; examples of studies; application to resource management. Brief review of gradient analysis techniques. Ordination of community and environmental data. Chapter 20. Vegetation Classification and Mapping (S. Franklin). A recent thrust in forest/plant ecology that has brought the science full circle since the 1930's. It comes with new methodology but an absence of the major conceptual debate over the community concept vs. continuum concept. History of vegetation classification in Europe, Canada and the United States. Uses in management. Approaches to classification: top down; bottom up; integrates macroclimate with physiographic provinces and vegetation patterns; USFS cover types (overstory only; criteria); ecological/land classification . Examples from the Forest Service, Nature Conservancy, SCS and states. National vegetation classification system. Problems in interpretation. Methodology: TWINSPAN; COMPAH; ordination approaches using vegetation or environmental data (Fralish 1994); geographic information systems (GIS). . VII. THE ECOSYSTEM. Chapter 21. Forest Ecosystem Concepts and Modeling (J. Fralish). . History of ecosystem concept and research, size and structure of the forest ecosystems, the laws of thermodynamics, and a generic model for understanding general function of biogeochemcial cycling. . Ecosystem defined. Concepts: size-spatial dimension; functional criteria for boundaries (natural; measurement of inputs and outputs). Examples of ecosystems; earth; biome; physiographic province; watershed, site (Smallest ecosystem for land manager). General structure: components; abiotic; biotic; trophic levels (primary producer, primary and secondary consumers); herbivory; carnivory; food webs. Diagrammatic representation of a forest ecosystem (Fralish 1977). . Concept of "open" system; open system vs. closed system; biogeochemical flow subsystems; compartments in forest ecosystems; diagrammatic representation (Fralish 1977). . Energy flow: Energy defined; First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics; entropy; energy budget; input; energy flow in forest ecosystem; transfers between compartments; transformations; output (heat release). Water flow. Nutrient Flow. Define ecosystem model; compartments; budget concept (inputs, transfers, transformations; storage; output). Types of graphic models; graphic model for mathematical model; universal mathematical model; change rate (dy/dt for each compartment/chemical element). The change rate for compartment 3 (e.g., detritus) = dy/dt = I3 + O3 + T13 - T31, etc where I represents input to Compartment 3 from outside the ecosystem, O3 represents output from compartment 3 to outside the ecosystem, T13 represents a transfer of material from compartment 1 to compartment 3 inside the ecosystem, and T31 represents transfers from compartment 3 into compartment 1 inside the ecosystem. Models and results from International Biological Program, Hubbard Brook Watershed experiments, Forest Service Forest Response Program and from German Soling studies. Chapter 22. Biogeochemistry of Forest Ecosystems (K. Williard & J. Schoonover). An examination of the open flow systems, water flow system and the biogeochemical subsystems and chemistry of important elements and molecules in soil and the atmosphere. Movement of water in the large scale ecosystems. Hydrologic cycle, hydrology. Precipitation, evapotranspiration, infiltration, soil water, ground water, stream flow. Nutrient cycling between forest ecosystems, an overview of nutrient cycles: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, potassium. Atmospheric chemistry. Nutrient cycling within soils and plants: decomposition/remineralization, translocation, nutrient use efficiency. . VIII. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT TOOLS. Chapter 23. Silviculture, and Ecosystem Management (J. Groninger). This chapter will describe how species ecological characteristics dictate the type of silvicultural techniques used to manage the community types within a forest. Consideration is given to the balancing of passive management vs. active management and ecosystem sustainability. An outline of the European roots of North American silviculture and its modification to forest conditions. Ecosystem management vs. single species, population or community. 1) Size of area needed. Reasons for maintaining ecosystem integrity: high water quality; soil maintenance; high biodiversity; traditional uses--productivity. 2) The forest succession problem (oak to maple/beech, lodgepole pine to Douglas-fir; Douglas-fir to hemlock/true fir, redwood and sequoia to true fir; southern pine to oak; aspen/birch to spruce fir). 3) The old growth conundrum (reduction in animal and plant biodiversity, shifting mosaic; area needed to a stabilize an ecosystem; 4) Conflicts and conflict resolution between problems 1, 2 and 3. The theory and practice of planning for and managing a large regional ecosystem. Sustainability. Examples from tree, forest plantation, and ecosystem management from Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Chapter 24. Forest Wildlife Management (E. Hellgren). A review of basic needs of wildlife (food, water, cover/nesting habitat.) and the influence of forest condition, disturbance, and loss of habitat on animal populations. Examples of management for common as well as rare and endangered species will be outlined. Relationship of forest ecology and management to biodiversity. Influence of overstory tree composition. Types of wildlife in forests: common, threatened, endangered. The dynamic forest mosaic: spatial and temporal scales, disturbance regimes and wildlife community response to vegetative succession. The effect of edge, islands and fragments, forest loss and fragmentation, riparian forests as wildlife refugia, corridors. Management strategies: vertical structure, snags, stumps, & salvage timber, green-tree reservoirs. Laws and protection. Case studies: red-cockaded woodpecker, Kirtland's warbler, spotted owl, porcupine-fisher, white-tailed deer, and moose. Neotropical migrant songbirds, cowbirds and interior forest. Threatened and endangered species. Chapter 25. Watershed Management (K. Williard and J. Schoonover) (possibly adding David DeWalle (Watershed Management Specialist at Penn State University) or Dr. Pamella Edwards (Forest Hydrologist, US Forest Service) and Dr. Matt Whiles (Aquatic ecologist, Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University). An overview of the movement of water in forested watersheds with emphasis on management activities. This chapter will build on and integrate the fundamentals outlined in chapter 21.. Movement of water through forest ecosystems. Precipitation, evapotranspiration, infiltration, soil water, ground water, streamflow. Reasons for management at the watershed level. Forest management influences on biogeochemistry. Nutrient losses from soil, site preparation; whole tree harvesting; impacts on water quantity, water quality, and biotic integrity; forest roads, and streamside management zones (large woody debris). Filter and buffer zones. Methodology used to explore the ecosystem budget and determine aggradation or degradation of ecosystems. Examples from research: Hubbard Brook (New Hampshire), Coweeta (North Carolina), H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest (Washington). Long-term forest sustainability and site productivity. Chapter 26. Landscape Ecology and Management (E. Holzmueller, J. Groninger, and J. Fralish). A review of landscape ecology fundamentals so far as they have been developed for this relatively new science. Fundamental concepts and terminology. Landscape as a mosaic of patches (pattern, heterogeneity). Interaction between pattern and process: energy and matter flux; dispersal and migration of organisms; spread of natural and human disturbance; biodiversity of stand/patch and the landscape. Hierarchial organization of the landscape: spatial and temporal scales; relationship to land ownership and management. Increasing the efficiency of resource management. Managing the intensity and spread of disturbance. Managing the fluxes from the forest: energy; water; nutrients; soil. Rethinking traditional management; "New Forestry". Case studies and litigation. Chapter 27. Spatial Analysis Techniques in Forest Ecology and Management (A. Carver and R. Thurau). A brief review of aerial photographic, photographs, and remote sensing. An introduction to the principles, software, techniques, and examples of applied spatial analysis specifically geographic information systems (GIS).. Brief introduction to aerial photography, film types, interpretation, remote sensing and satellite imagery. Geographic information sytems, understanding spatial characteristics of forest ecosystems; ecological land types; using digital soils; utilizing remote sensing imagery; acquiring data; time change analysis; understanding spatial sampling variation; topographic variation; climatic variation; planning for effective forest management using spatial systems; delineating management zones; identifying special interest areas; planning the harvest; disease and pest management; planning for prescribed fire management; risk management in wildfire suppression. . . Chapter 28. Invasive Species Management (Roger Anderson). . A review of historical development and concepts with regard to invasive species and approaches being used to develop/restore/preserve rare degraded or damaged forest ecosystems and eliminate invasive species. Invasive plants occur in all strata of deciduous forests including the ground layer, forest understory, and the canopy tree layer. Lifeforms include vines, herbaceous dichotomous herbs, grasses, shrubs, and shade intolerant and shade tolerant trees. Invasive non-native plant species include garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), buckthorns (Rhamnus cathartica; R. frangula), Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), honeysuckles (Lonicera mackii, L. tartarica, and L. japonica), kudzu (Pueraria montana), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellatum), Oriental bittersweet (Celastris orbiculatus), and Norway maple (Acer platinoides) . Native invasive species include sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and red maple (Acer rubrum). Disruption of forest ecosystems by displacing native species and altering forest ecosystems processes. Adaptation advantages of these invasive species: green year round, early growth in spring before the tree canopy closes, and allelopathy. Increase the invasibility of forests including fragmentation and large-scale disturbances will be presented. Global warming as a factor that could increase invasion of species into deciduous forests. Management practices available to control or mitigate impacts of invasive plants will discussed. Examples of other invasives-Chestnut blight, Dutch elm, disease, woolly adelgid, others. Chapter 29. Ecosystem restoration. (J. Groninger, J. Fralish, and R. Anderson). Ecosystem restoration is a relatively recent concept that is receiving increasing emphasis. Restoration concepts and theory apply not only to degraded forest communities but also to other small plant communities that must be managed within a forest to maintain the matrix. These would include prairie remnants, glades, barrens, savannahs, fens, and marshes. Definition and scope. History of degradation. Techniques of restoration: goals and economics (low vs. high budget); type of restoration; practical restoration; reclamation vs. restoration. Tools to meet ecosystem goals. Importance of restoration goals; single purpose (watershed, timber production) vs. multiple objectives (natural areas, biodiversity, landscape). Theoretic models underlying forest restoration practices; use of theoretic simulation models to guide restoration practices; test of models on community and ecosystem dynamics; restoration of function vs. restoration of structure (e. g., redwood problem). Relationship to natural disturbance regime; biome related differences (western conifer vs. eastern deciduous). Long term monitoring to assess progress over time. . Chapter 30. The Future. . Human population problems; birth control; pollution; global climatic change; other socio-economic problems, wood as a fuel, the forest as a CO2 sink, wood as stored CO2.

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Dr. Roger C. Anderson is a Distinguished Professor of Biology at Illinois State University, Normal. He graduated with a B.S. Degree, Magna cum Laude, from Wisconsin State College, LaCrosse in l963. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in l965 and l968, respectively. He has been a member and chairman of the Fermilab Environmental Advisory Committee and Director of the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. Since 1993, he has been a member of the editorial board of the international journal Restoration Ecology. Dr. Anderson's research is in the area of plant ecology, and includes studies on the effect of fire on prairie and savanna vegetation, historic vegetation, ecology of mycorrhizae, invasive species, and the influence of deer browsing on vegetation. Dr. Anderson has published 110 peer-reviewed papers. His research has been published in Ecology, Science, American Journal of Botany, Restoration Ecology, Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, American Midland Naturalist, and Vegetatio. He has written 9 book chapters and is senior editor of Savannas, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North American (1999, R. C. Anderson, J. S. Fralish, and J. M. Baskin, editors, Cambridge University Press). Dr. Anderson is a Fellow of the Illinois Academy of Science. Honors of being designated a College of Arts and Sciences Lecturer and an Outstanding College and University Researcher. Dr. Andrew D. Carver is an Associate Professor of Forestry at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Dr. Carver graduated with a M.S. in Forest Economics and Policy and a Ph.D. in Agronomy from Purdue University. Dr. Carver's research focuses on theoretical and applied mathematical modeling of environmental systems and human-environmental interactions, geo-spatial decision support tools for ecological landscape analysis and the role of natural resources and ecosystems in domestic and international economic development. Dr. Carver has most recently published research articles in journals such as Forest Policy and Economics, Journal of Environmental Management, Society and Natural Resources, Environmental Science and Policy, and Agroforestry Systems. He was Principle Investigator of a grant from the U.S. Forest Service to produce an ecological/land classification system for the Shawnee National Forest using GIS, and is a co-author of the research report from that project (Fralish, et al. Presettlement, Present, and Projected Forest Communities of the Shawnee National Forest, 2002); 145 pages). Dr. James S. Fralish is an Adjunct Associate Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale. He received degrees from Michigan State University (B.S. and M.S.) in forestry and a Ph.D. degree in plant ecology and botany from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. During his 25 years with the Department, he taught courses in forest ecology, soils, site evaluation, tree physiology, forest ecosystems and research methods, as well as tree identification and flora of southern Illinois. His research has concentrated on forest species and communities, and their relationship to physical site factors and disturbance, and presettlement vegetation. Dr. Fralish authored the textbook Taxonomy and Ecology of Woody Species in North American Forests (Fralish and Franklin, 2002, John Wiley & Sons). He has co-edited four books including John T. Curtis: Forty Years of Wisconsin Plant Ecology (Fralish, McIntire, and Loucks, 1993, Wisconsin Academy of Science, Letters, and Arts), Savannah, Barrens, and Rock Outcrop Plant Communities of North America (Anderson, Fralish & Baskin, 1999, Cambridge University Press), Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee: Forty Years of Tennessee Valley Authority Stewardship (Chester & Fralish, 2002, Austin Peay State University), The Porcupine Wilderness Journals (C. Julian-Fralish, S. Julian-Fralish, and J. Fralish, 2002, The Stasis Group). He has published research on forest ecology in Ecological Applications, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, Journal of Vegetation Science, American Midland Naturalist, Journal of Forestry, Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science, Proceedings of Illinois State Academy of Science, and a number of symposium proceedings. He has authored seven book chapters. Dr. Fralish has twice received the Senior Research Award from the Association of Southeastern Biologists. He has served two terms as Vegetation Science Editor for the American Midland Naturalist journal. Dr. Fralish is certified as a Senior Ecologist by the Ecological Society of America. In 1976, he initiated the Central Hardwood Forest Conference for researchers and foresters, which continues to hold biennial meetings with proceedings published by United States Department of Agriculture Northern or Northeastern Research Stations. Dr. Scott B. Franklin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Biology at the University of Memphis, Tennessee. Scott Franklin is a plant community ecologist with a B.S. in biology (Upper Iowa University), a M.S. in forestry (Southern Illinois University) and a Ph.D. in plant biology (Southern Illinois University). Additionally, he obtained a Ph.D. in Forest Ecology (University of Joensuu) while on a Fulbright Fellowship. Dr. Franklin has studied disturbance in forest communities for over 16 years, with emphasis on spatial and temporal vegetation dynamics. He work has integrated applied management questions into his research with exotic species, fire, forested floodplains, hydrology of the Mississippi River, and slash and burn agriculture. Most recently, Dr. Franklin has developed research examining the potential to restore canebrakes (Arundinaria gigantea) in southeastern United States and the regeneration of bamboo (Fargesia and Bashania) in the Qinling Mountains of China following disturbance. Dr. Franklin has co-authored one book, Taxonomy and Ecology of Woody Species in North American Forests (Fralish and Franklin, 2002, John Wiley & Sons) and six book chapters. His research is published in Journal of Vegetation Science, Plant Ecology, Journal of Applied Ecology, Global Ecology & Biogeography, and Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Dr. Franklin is Vegetation Science Editor for American Midland Naturalist. Dr. John Groninger is an Associate Professor in the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Before coming to SIUC in 1997, he worked as a post-doctoral researcher and instructor at Virginia Tech. He holds a B.S. in Biology from Yale and forestry degrees from Penn State (M.S.) and Virginia Tech (Ph.D.). Dr. Groninger teaches classes in silviculture, advanced silviculture, agroforestry, and urban forestry. Along with his graduate students and colleagues, Dr. Groninger's research at SIUC has focused on silviculture, reforesting marginal agricultural lands, maintaining and regenerating hardwood-dominated ecosystems, short rotation plantations, and urban forestry. He published research appears in Forest Science, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, Forest Ecology and Management, Journal of Forestry, and The American Midland Naturalist. Dr.Eric Hellgren is Director of the Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory and Professor of Zoology at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. He received his B.S. degree from Colorado State University, M.S. degree from Texas A&M University, and Ph.D. (in 1988) from Virginia Tech University. He has held research and academic appointments at the Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute at Texas A&M University-Kingsville and at Oklahoma State University before moving to his current position in fall 2005. He primarily research concentrates on mammalian ecology, and to a lesser extent, reptilian ecology. Dr. Hellgren has published over 110 peer-reviewed publications, including papers in Ecology, Conservation Biology, Oecologia, Oikos, Biological Conservation, Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, Journal of Wildlife Management, and Journal of Mammalog. He has written six book chapters. He has served as an Associate Editor of several serial publications and is currently editor-in-chief of Wildlife Monographs Dr. Eric Holzmueller is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. He received a Bachelor of Science and master's degree in Forestry from Iowa State University and a Ph.D in Forestry from the University of Florida. Prior to coming to SIUC, he worked as a post-doctoral research associate and visiting instructor at UF. Dr. Holzmueller teaches courses in forest management and landscape ecology at SIUC. His current research efforts focus on the impacts of exotic diseases on forest structure and species composition in the Central Hardwood Region and the integration of forest stewardship plans into a statewide geospatial database that allows IL DNR staff to identify resource potentials and threats to Illinois forests. He has published his research in Forest Ecology and Management, Plant and Soil, Oecologia, Journal of Forestry, Agroforestry Systems, and multiple conference proceedings. Dr. John E. Phelps is Professor and Chair of the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Dr. Phelps received a B.A. in Biology from Central Methodist College, Fayette, Missouri, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in wood technology from the University of Missouri, Columbia. He has worked with the U.S. Forest Service as a Project Leader and Wood Products Technologist and with the University of Missouri as a Research Associate. He has been Chair of the Forestry Department since 1990, where he teaches courses in wood science and forest industries. His research is on wood quality/growth quality relationships. Dr. Phelps has held leadership positions in the Society of Wood and Science Technology, International Union of Forestry Research, and the International Association of Wood Technologists. Dr. Phelps has published research in the Wood and Fiber Science, Forest Products Journal, and Journal of International Association of Wood Anatomists. Charles M. Ruffner is an Associate Professor of Forestry at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale. He holds a B.S. in Forest Science w/Honors, and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Forest Resources from the Pennsylvania State University. He teaches courses in forest measurements, Wildland Fire Management, Historical Ecology, and Disturbance Ecology. Before arriving at SIUC in 1999, he worked as a Research Associate and Instructor at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst researching the fire history of Cape Cod. Dr. Ruffner's research concentrates on the long-term effects of human manipulation and disturbances on the landscape by documenting land-use evidence and subsequent vegetation responses, analyzing tree-rings and/or fire scars to reconstruct disturbance histories, and integrating archaeological and paleoecological data to understand Native American-Colonial European impacts on forest resources of eastern North America. Dr. Ruffner has published his research in the Canadian Journal of Forest Research, Forest Science, Forest Ecology and Management, Journal of the Torrey Botanical Club, Natural Areas Journal, and Journal of Forestry. He is on the Editorial Board for Natural Areas Journal. Dr. Jon Schoonover is an Assistant Professor of Physical Hydrology in the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIUC). He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees from the Department of Forestry at SIUC, and a Ph.D. degree from the School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences at Auburn University, AL. At SIUC, he teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in forest soils, urban ecosystem management, and watershed management. Dr. Schoonover's research has focused on the water quality benefits of Giant Cane as a riparian species (restoration) and the effects of urban development on hydrology, water quality, and channel morphology of forested land. Dr. Schoonover has published his research in the Journal of Hydrology, Journal of Environmental Quality, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Journal of American Water Resources Association, Agroforestry Systems, and Urban Ecosystems. Richard Thurau is a senior Ph.D. student in Environmental Science, in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs (SPEA), at Indiana University, Bloomington. He received his Bachelor's of Science (2000) and Master's of Science (2003) degrees in Forestry from Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Thurau has applied spatial analysis techniques to a wide range of topics including mapping and sampling designs for forest measurement, an ecological classification system for the Shawnee National Forest, mapping historic land use change in Indiana, developing land use change models, and a technique for modeling site productivity using soil and digital elevation/terrain models (DEM). Thurau served as the GIS expert and modeler in a study of the Shawnee National Forest funded by the US Forest Service. He is a co-author of the research report (Fralish, et al.; Presettlement, Present, and Projected Forest Communities of the Shawnee National Forest, 2002; 145 pages). Dr. Karl W. J. Williard is an Associate Professor of Forest Hydrology/Watershed Science in the Department of Forestry at Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIUC). He received a B.A. in Biology from Lehigh University, a M.S. in Environmental Pollution Control from Penn State University, and a Ph.D. in Forest Hydrology from Penn State University. Dr. Williard teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in Watershed Management and Forest Hydrology at SIUC. His current research interests include nutrient and sediment attenuation in riparian buffer zones, nitrogen cycling in forested watersheds, and the impacts of invasive species on water quality. Dr. Williard has published his research in the Journal of Hydrology, Journal of American Water Resources Association, Canadian Journal of Forest Research, Journal of Environmental Quality, and Agroforestry Systems. Dr. James Zaczek is an Associate Professor in the Forestry Department at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. He joined the Department in 1997. He holds a B.S. and M.S. in Forestry (Forest Resources Management and forest Genetics, respectively) from Southern Illinois University and a Ph.D. in Forest Science from Penn State University. Dr. Zaczek has been a researcher and teacher in forestry since 1983 when he joined the research faculty at Penn State. He teaches courses in forest community ecology, population ecology, dendrology, and tree physiology. Dr. Zaczek's research encompasses the biology, ecology, and genetics of trees with emphasis on oak; regeneration ecology of hardwood forest ecosystems; stand dynamics in old growth hardwood forests; ontogenetic changes in trees; propagation of recalcitrant woody plants; and ecosystem restoration. His publications appears in the Canadian Journal of Forest Research, Northern Journal of Applied Forestry, Southern Journal of Applied Forestry, Forest Ecology and Management, Natural Areas Journal, Journal of Environmental Horticulture, and New Forests.