Enhance the durability and longevity of critical infrastructure with this essential book that provides a comprehensive, multidisciplinary guide to the fundamentals of concrete corrosion and practical solutions using advanced anti-corrosion technologies and sustainable practices.
Concrete is the backbone of modern infrastructure, forming the foundation of bridges, high-ways, buildings, and countless other structures worldwide. Yet despite its strength and versatility, concrete is highly susceptible to corrosion, leading to structural degradation, safety risks, and costly repairs. Addressing this challenge requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates fundamental corrosion science with cutting-edge technologies and sustainable practices.
Corrosion in Concrete Structures is a comprehensive guide to understanding and addressing corrosion in concrete. Starting with the fundamentals, this book explores the material properties of concrete, the key concepts behind corrosion, and the environments that make concrete prone to degradation. Readers will gain in-depth knowledge of corrosion assessment, inspection techniques, and the environmental and sustainability implications of concrete corrosion. The book also delves into the role of advanced anti-corrosion technologies, including coatings, sealants, and cathodic protection systems. It examines corrosion inhibitors and their applications, offering practical solutions for reducing corrosion in real-world settings.
With case studies and innovations in concrete corrosion control, this book serves as an invaluable resource for engineers, researchers, and industry professionals seeking to enhance the durability and sustainability of concrete structures in the face of corrosion challenges.
Audience
Engineers, materials scientists, chemists, academics, and researchers in the fields of civil engineering, structural engineering, and materials science, specifically those involved in the development of sustainable and innovative corrosion prevention technologies within the concrete and construction sectors.
Table of Contents:
Preface xv
1 Corrosion Fundamentals: Understanding the Science Behind the Damage 1
Kaoutar Zaidi, Walid Daoudi, Selma Lamghafri, Omar Dagdag, Abdelmalik El Aatiaoui and Abdelouahad Aouinti
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Basic Chemistry of Corrosion 3
1.2.1 Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion 3
1.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Corrosion 3
1.3 Types of Corrosion 5
1.3.1 Uniform Corrosion 5
1.3.2 Pitting Corrosion 6
1.3.3 Crevice Corrosion 7
1.3.4 Intergranular Corrosion 7
1.3.5 Stress Corrosion 8
1.4 Electrochemical Corrosion Mechanisms 8
1.5 Corrosion-Inducing Factors 10
1.6 Conclusion 11
References 11
2 Concrete Material Properties and Corrosion 13
Rajae Salim, Jamila Lazrak, Elhachmia Ech-chihbi, Walid Ettahiri, Charafeddine Jama, Belkheir Hammouti and Mustapha Taleb
2.1 Introduction 14
2.1.1 Urban Infrastructures 15
2.1.2 Residential Sector 16
2.1.3 Commercial and Industrial Buildings 17
2.1.4 Agricultural Application 17
2.1.5 Sustainable Construction 18
2.2 Importance of Steel in Concrete 18
2.2.1 Strength Enhancement 19
2.2.2 Environmental Considerations 19
2.3 Material Properties of Concrete 20
2.3.1 Compressive Strength 20
2.3.2 Durability 22
2.3.3 Permeability and Porosity 23
2.3.4 Workability 24
2.3.5 Shrinkage and Creep 25
2.3.6 Tensile Strength 26
2.3.7 Modulus of Elasticity 26
2.3.8 Thermal Properties 27
2.4 Corrosion Properties of Steel in Concrete 28
2.4.1 Electrochemical Properties 29
2.4.2 Concrete Permeability 30
2.4.3 Chemical Properties 31
2.4.4 Mechanical Properties 32
2.4.5 Physical Properties 32
2.5 Causes of Concrete Corrosion 33
2.5.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 34
2.5.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 34
2.6 Consequences of Concrete Corrosion 35
2.6.1 Degradation of the Embedding Concrete 35
2.6.2 Initiation of Reinforcement Corrosion 36
2.6.3 Development of Corrosion 36
2.6.4 Structures Affected by Corrosion of Concrete 36
2.7 Methods of Protecting Concrete against Corrosion 37
2.7.1 Using High-Quality Concrete mix 37
2.7.2 Coating Techniques 39
2.7.2.1 Electrocoating 39
2.7.2.2 Metallic Coatings 39
2.7.2.3 Organic Coatings 40
2.7.3 Galvanization Protection 41
2.7.3.1 Sacrificial Anodes 41
2.7.3.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) 42
2.7.3.3 Hybrid Cathodic Protection 43
2.7.4 Surface Treatments 43
2.7.4.1 Sealants and Coatings 43
2.7.4.2 Waterproof Membranes 44
2.7.5 Use of Corrosion Inhibitors 45
2.7.6 Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ECE) 45
2.7.7 Design and Construction Practices 46
2.7.7.1 Adequate Concrete Cover 46
2.7.7.2 Good Drainage Design 47
2.8 Techniques for Assessing Corrosion Concrete 48
2.9 Future Perspectives and Research Directions 52
2.10 Conclusion 52
References 53
3 Fundamentals and Understanding of Corrosion-Prone Environments in Concrete Corrosion 59
Demian I. Njoku, Annuncieta C. Njoku, Paul C. Uzoma, Ini-Ibehe Nabuk Etim and Inime I. Udoh
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Factors That Contribute to Concrete Corrosion 61
3.3 Concrete Corrosion-Prone Environments 63
3.3.1 Moisture and Availability of Oxygen 63
3.3.2 Marine Environment 64
3.3.3 Industrial Environments 65
3.3.4 De-Icing Salt Environments 66
3.3.5 Underground Environments 67
3.3.6 Agricultural Environments 67
3.3.7 Coastal Environments 68
3.4 Distinctive Analysis of the Process of Concrete Corrosion 68
3.4.1 Mechanism Associated with the Acceleration of Concrete Corrosion 68
3.4.2 Reduction of Concrete Lifespan 70
3.5 Current Practices Used to Minimize Corrosion in Different Environments 71
3.5.1 Surface and Environmental Modification 71
3.5.2 Trends and Best Design Practices for Improvement in the Field of Concrete Corrosion Prevention and Mitigation 73
3.6 Cases of Failures due to Corrosion of Concrete Structures in Different Environments and the Mitigations 74
3.7 Conclusions 76
Acknowledgment 77
References 77
4 Corrosion Assessment and Inspection in Concrete Corrosion 85
Ichraq Bouhouche, Khalid Bouiti, Nabil Lahrache, Najoua Labjar, Hamid Nasrellah, Said Laasri, Ayoub Cherrat and Souad El Hajjaji
4.1 Introduction to Corrosion Assessment and Inspection 86
4.1.1 Overview of Corrosion in Concrete Structures 86
4.1.2 Significance of Early Detection 87
4.1.3 Challenges in Corrosion Assessment 87
4.2 Forms of Corrosion in Concrete 88
4.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 88
4.2.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 89
4.2.3 Sulfate Attack 90
4.3 Visual Assessment Methods 90
4.3.1 Surface Damage and Deterioration 90
4.3.2 Signs of Corrosion in Concrete Structures 92
4.4 Electrochemical Assessment Methods 93
4.4.1 Half-Cell Potential Measurements 94
4.4.2 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 94
4.4.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 95
4.5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques 98
4.5.1 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) 98
4.5.2 Radiography 98
4.5.3 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) 99
4.6 Advanced Technologies in Corrosion Inspection 100
4.6.1 Remote Sensing Techniques 100
4.6.2 Digital Imaging and Analysis 101
4.6.3 Integration of IoT and Data Analytics in Corrosion Monitoring 101
4.7 Case Studies in Corrosion Assessment 101
4.7.1 Case Study 1: Assessment in Marine Structures 102
4.7.2 Case Study 2: Inspection of Bridges and Overpasses 102
4.7.3 Case Study 3: Industrial Infrastructure 103
4.8 Discussion on Assessment and Inspection Results 104
4.8.1 Interpretation of Data 104
4.8.2 Correlation Between Inspection Techniques and Structural Health 105
4.9 Conclusion 105
4.9.1 Recommendations for Practitioners 106
4.9.2 Future Directions in Corrosion Assessment and Inspection 107
Bibliography 107
5 Impact of Concrete Corrosion on Environmental Sustainability 119
Abhinay Thakur, Valentine C. Anadebe, Elyor Berdimurodov, Abdelkader Zarrouk, Omar Dagdag and Ashish Kumar
5.1 Introduction 120
5.2 Types of Concrete Corrosion 123
5.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 123
5.2.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 123
5.2.3 Other Corrosion Mechanisms 124
5.3 Impact on Structural Integrity and Concrete Durability 125
5.4 Environmental Consequences 129
5.4.1 Resource Consumption and Waste Generation 129
5.4.2 Release of Harmful Substances 130
5.4.3 Impact on Soil and Water Quality 131
5.5 Sustainability Challenges 133
5.5.1 Lifecycle of Concrete Structures 133
5.5.2 Resource Depletion and Energy Use 134
5.6 Mitigation Strategies and Recent Advancements 136
5.7 Challenges and Future Directions 146
5.8 Conclusion 149
References 150
6 Role of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealants in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 163
Humira Assad, Richika Ganjoo, Shveta Sharma, Praveen Kumar Sharma, Femiana Gapsari and Ashish Kumar
6.1 Introduction 164
6.2 Concrete Corrosion 166
6.3 Overview of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealant Systems 168
6.3.1 Types 169
6.3.2 Criteria for Selecting Coatings and Sealants 171
6.3.3 Installation and Performance of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealant Systems 172
6.4 Role of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealants in Concrete Corrosion 177
6.5 Conclusion 180
References 181
7 Role of Cathodic Protection Systems in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 187
Samir H. Shafek, Ahmed H. Elged, Mohamed A. Shenashen, Emad A. Badr and Hassan H. H. Hefni
7.1 Introduction 188
7.2 Cathodic Protection 189
7.3 Cathodic Protection (CP) Monitoring Techniques in Concrete Structures 190
7.3.1 Embedded Reference Electrodes 190
7.3.2 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 191
7.3.3 Concrete Resistivity Monitoring 191
7.3.4 Galvanostatic Pulse Measurements 192
7.3.5 Wireless and Remote Monitoring Systems 193
7.4 Anode Installation and Replacement 194
7.4.1 Anode Installation 194
7.4.1.1 Site Assessment and Design 194
7.4.1.2 Preparation of the Concrete Surface 195
7.4.1.3 Anode Placement 195
7.4.1.4 Electrical Connections 195
7.4.2 Anode Replacement 196
7.4.2.1 Monitoring and Evaluation 196
7.4.2.2 Removal of Old Anodes 196
7.4.2.3 Installation of New Anodes 196
7.4.2.4 Post-Installation Testing 196
7.5 Anode Materials 197
7.5.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) 197
7.5.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) 199
7.6 Factors Affecting Cathodic Protection Design in Concrete Corrosion 203
7.6.1 Chloride Content 203
7.6.2 Concrete Resistivity 203
7.6.3 Steel Reinforcement Geometry and Spacing 203
7.6.4 Concrete Cover Depth 204
7.6.5 Environmental Exposure Conditions 204
7.6.6 Compatibility of Materials 204
7.7 New Trends of Cathodic Protection in Concrete Corrosion 204
7.8 Challenges in Implementing Cathodic Protection in Concrete and Addressing Environmental and Sustainability Considerations 208
7.9 Conclusion 208
References 209
8 Role of Corrosion Inhibitors in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 213
Shweta Goyal, Vijay Luxami and Sonia Rani
8.1 Introduction 214
8.2 Definition of Corrosion Inhibitors 215
8.3 Mechanism of Action of Inhibitor 216
8.3.1 Passivation 216
8.3.2 Adsorption 216
8.3.3 Film-Forming 217
8.3.4 Smart Release 217
8.4 Classification of Corrosion Inhibitors 217
8.5 Classification Based on Mechanism of Action 217
8.5.1 Anodic Inhibitors 219
8.5.2 Cathodic Inhibitors 219
8.5.3 Hybrid Inhibitors 220
8.6 Classification Based on Field Application 220
8.6.1 Admixed Inhibitors 220
8.6.2 Migratory Inhibitors 221
8.6.3 Bi-Directional Electro-Migration (BIEM) 221
8.7 Classification Based on Chemical Composition 222
8.7.1 Inorganic Inhibitors 222
8.7.1.1 Nitrate and Nitrite Based Inhibitor 222
8.7.1.2 Phosphate Based Inhibitor 226
8.7.1.3 Chromates and Molybdates 226
8.7.2 Organic Inhibitors 226
8.7.2.1 Performance of Organic Corrosion Inhibitors Depending on the Functional Groups 228
8.7.2.2 Heterocyclic Compounds as Inhibitors 237
8.8 Green Inhibitors 238
8.9 Smart Inhibitors 243
8.10 Testing and Evaluation Methods of Inhibitors 245
8.10.1 Gravimetric Analysis 245
8.10.2 Electrochemical Analysis 246
8.10.3 Surface Analysis 247
8.10.4 Standard Test Method 247
8.11 Challenges and Future Perspectives 247
8.12 Conclusion 248
References 249
9 Case Studies on Concrete Corrosion 257
Ali Dashan, Hedieh Kazemi, Bahram Ramezanzadeh and Ghasem Bahlakeh
9.1 Introduction 258
9.2 Principles of Cathodic Protection: An Examination of Case Studies 259
9.2.1 Principles of Cathodic Protection 259
9.2.2 Case Studies of Cathodic Protection 260
9.3 Corrosion Protection Based on Anti-Corrosion Coating: An Examination of Case Studies 269
9.3.1 Corrosion Protection Through Anti-Corrosion Coatings 269
9.3.2 Case Studies of Anti-Corrosion Coatings 270
9.4 Utilizing Corrosion Inhibitors: An Examination of Case Studies 276
9.4.1 The Utilization of Corrosion Inhibitors in Material Preservation 276
9.4.2 Case Studies of Corrosion Inhibitors 277
9.5 Comparative Analysis, Challenges, and Outlooks 285
References 287
10 Innovations in Concrete Corrosion Control 291
Ruby Aslam, Zhitao Yan, Qihui Wang, Yi Sun, Afroz Aslam and Jeenat Aslam
10.1 Introduction 292
10.2 Innovative Materials for Corrosion Control 293
10.2.1 Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcements 293
10.2.2 Stainless Steel Innovations 293
10.2.3 Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP) 293
10.2.4 Coated Rebars 293
10.2.5 Self-Healing Concrete 294
10.2.5.1 Autogenic Repair 295
10.2.5.2 Hollow Fibers 295
10.2.5.3 Microencapsulation 296
10.2.5.4 Alkaline Activated Geopolymer Binder without Cement Content 296
10.2.5.5 Biomineralization 297
10.3 Nanomaterials in Concrete 299
10.4 Advanced Coatings and Sealants 300
10.5 Chemical Admixtures for Corrosion Protection 301
10.5.1 Employment of Smart Corrosion Inhibitor 301
10.5.2 Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) 303
10.6 Electrochemical Techniques 304
10.6.1 Cathodic Protection Systems 305
10.6.2 Electrochemical Realkalization and Chloride Extraction Methods 306
10.6.2.1 Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ece) 307
10.6.2.2 Electrochemical Realkalization 307
10.7 Role of AI and ML in Designing Corrosion-Resistant Concrete 307
10.7.1 Corrosion Assessment and Prediction 308
10.7.2 Material Discovery and Optimization 308
10.7.3 Structural Design Enhancement 308
10.8 Future Considerations 308
10.9 Conclusion 310
References 311
11 Role of Nanotechnology in Concrete Corrosion Prevention 317
Nabil Lahrache, Khalid Bouiti, Ichraq Bouhouche, Najoua Labjar, Hamid Nasrellah, Said Laasri, Ayoub Cherrat and Souad El Hajjaji
11.1 Introduction 318
11.2 Role of Nanotechnology in Corrosion Prevention 319
11.2.1 Inhibition of Steel Corrosion by Nanohybrids 319
11.2.2 Inhibition of Copper Corrosion by Nanohybrids 319
11.2.3 Examples of Nanohybrids Used to Prevent Metal Corrosion 321
11.3 Types of Nanomaterials Used in Concrete Corrosion Prevention 323
11.3.1 Use of Nano-Admixtures 323
11.3.2 Employment of Nanoparticle 325
11.3.3 Nanocoatings 328
11.4 Challenges and Limitations 331
11.5 Future Perspectives 331
11.6 Conclusion 331
References 332
Index 343
About the Author :
Ruby Aslam, PhD is a Postdoctoral fellow in the School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. She has authored and co-authored more than 100 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals and edited 17 books. Her research focuses on corrosion inhibitors, ionic liquids, and colloid and surface science.
Qihui Wang, PhD works in the School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. His research focuses on the development and application of green corrosion inhibitors and theoretical calculations to explain the anti-corrosion mechanism of green corrosion inhibitors against metals.
Zhitao Yan, PhD is a Professor in the School of Civil Engineering and Architecture at the Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. He has authored and co-authored more than 170 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals, authorized 57 Chinese patents, and published three monographs. His research interests include structure wind engineering, nonlinear vibration, and transmission tower line systems.
Afroz Aslam, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, the Constituent Government College, Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, U.P. India. She has published many research articles and chapters in peer-reviewed international journals. Her research is mainly focused on organic synthesis, materials and corrosion, phytochemistry, and heterocyclic catalysis.
