Quantum Optics Devices on a Chip

Quantum Optics Devices on a Chip provides a comprehensive understanding of how the integration of advanced quantum technologies and photonics is revolutionizing multiple industries, making it essential for anyone interested in the future of quantum innovation. Quantum Optics Devices on a Chip is situated at the intersection of several disciplines and industries, driving advancements in quantum technology and integrated photonics. The development of quantum optics devices on a chip represents a significant breakthrough. Chip-scale integration involves designing and fabricating optical devices, such as waveguides, modulators, detectors, and light sources, on a micro- or nanoscale chip. This miniaturization enables the integration of multiple components on a single chip, leading to compact, efficient, and scalable quantum optical systems. Quantum sensing applications, such as magnetometry, gyroscopy, and biosensing, can benefit from miniaturized, high-performance devices integrated on a chip, allowing for the seamless integration of quantum optical functionalities with existing photonic circuits. This integration holds promise for applications in telecommunications, data communication, and optical signal processing. Overall, the development of quantum optics devices on a chip represents a significant step forward in the advancement of quantum technology. It brings together principles from physics, materials science, engineering, and computer science to enable the practical implementation of quantum phenomena for a wide range of applications across industries. Quantum Optics Devices on a Chip serves as a comprehensive guide to this rapidly evolving field, providing insights and knowledge, exploring the contributions it has made to the disciplinary and industrial development of quantum optics devices on a chip.

Table of Contents:
Preface xvii 1 Quantum-Limited Microwave Amplifiers 1 Dnyandeo Pawar, Bhaskara Rao, Ajay Kumar, Rajesh Kanawade and Arul Kashmir Arulraj 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Why Microwave Amplifiers? 2 1.3 Quantum-Limited Amplifiers 3 1.4 Types of Microwave-Based Amplifiers 4 1.4.1 Conventional Electronic Amplifiers or High-Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) Amplifiers 5 1.4.2 Superconducting-Based Amplifiers 6 1.4.2.1 Josephson Junction 6 1.4.2.2 Concept of Parametric Amplifier 8 1.4.3 Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (MASER) 8 1.5 Discussion on Quantum-Limited Microwave Amplifiers 9 1.6 Conclusion and Outlook 16 References 18 2 Introduction to Quantum Optics 25 Jamie Vovrosh 2.1 How Is Quantum Optics Defined? 25 2.2 A Very Brief History of Quantum Optics 26 2.3 Modern-Day Quantum Optics 31 References 32 3 Carbon Nanotubes with Quantum Defects 35 Drisya G. Chandran, Loganathan Muruganandam and Rima Biswas 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Various Types of Defects in Carbon Nanotube 38 3.2.1 Capped Carbon Nanotube (Hemispherical Caps) 38 3.2.2 Intramolecular Nano-Junction (Bent Carbon Nanotube) 39 3.2.3 Irradiated Carbon Nanotube 41 3.2.4 Layered Carbon Nanotube 42 3.2.5 Coalescence of Carbon Nanotubes 44 3.2.6 Welding Carbon Nanotubes 45 3.2.7 Doping Carbon Nanotubes 45 3.2.8 sp 3 Quantum Defect (Organic Color-Center) 46 3.3 Conclusions 50 References 50 4 Quantum Dots to Medical Devices 55 Mohammad Harun-Ur-Rashid, Israt Jahan and Abu Bin Imran 4.1 Introduction 56 4.2 Synthesis and Characterization of QDs 57 4.2.1 Chemical Synthesis Methods 57 4.2.1.1 Colloidal Synthesis 57 4.2.1.2 Organometallic Synthesis 58 4.2.1.3 Sol–Gel Method 60 4.2.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis 61 4.2.2 Physical Properties and Characterization Techniques 62 4.2.2.1 Size and Shape 62 4.2.2.2 Optical Properties 65 4.2.2.3 Surface Chemistry 65 4.2.2.4 Electrical Properties 65 4.2.2.5 Toxicity and Biocompatibility 65 4.2.3 Surface Modification for Biocompatibility 65 4.2.3.1 Need for Surface Modification 66 4.2.3.2 Organic Coating Strategies 66 4.2.3.3 Inorganic Coating Techniques 66 4.2.3.4 Ligand Exchange Processes 67 4.2.3.5 Biocompatibility Testing 68 4.3 Quantum Dots in Biomedical Imaging 69 4.3.1 Fluorescent Properties and Their Use in Imaging 69 4.3.1.1 Unique Fluorescent Properties 69 4.3.1.2 Advantages in Imaging 70 4.3.1.3 Techniques Employing Quantum Dot Fluorescence 71 4.3.1.4 Biocompatibility and Targeting 71 4.3.1.5 Clinical and Research Applications 73 4.3.2 In Vivo vs. In Vitro Imaging Applications 73 4.3.2.1 In Vitro Imaging Applications 74 4.3.2.2 In Vivo Imaging Applications 75 4.3.2.3 Comparative Considerations 76 4.3.3 Advantages Over Traditional Imaging Agents 76 4.3.3.1 Enhanced Fluorescent Properties 76 4.3.3.2 Improved Targeting and Specificity 77 4.3.3.3 Versatility and Broad Application Range 77 4.3.3.4 Long-Term Tracking Capabilities 77 4.4 QDs in Drug Delivery Systems 78 4.4.1 Mechanism of Drug Delivery 79 4.4.1.1 Targeting and Cellular Uptake 79 4.4.1.2 Drug Release 79 4.4.1.3 Endosomal Escape 79 4.4.1.4 Real-Time Tracking 79 4.4.2 Current Advancements in QD-Mediated Therapies 81 4.4.2.1 Targeted Drug Delivery 81 4.4.2.2 Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies 83 4.4.2.3 Gene Therapy 84 4.4.2.4 Immunotherapy 85 4.4.2.5 Overcoming Multidrug Resistance (MDR) 86 4.5 QDs in Diagnostic Applications 88 4.5.1 Bioimaging 88 4.5.2 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) 89 4.5.3 Diagnostic Assays 90 4.6 Ethical, Safety, and Regulatory Considerations 92 4.6.1 Ethical Considerations 92 4.6.2 Safety Concerns 94 4.6.3 Regulatory Considerations 95 4.6.4 Environmental Impact 96 4.6.5 Future Directions 97 4.7 Conclusion 98 Acknowledgments 99 References 99 5 The Quantum State of Light 111 Kamal Singh, Virender, Gurjaspreet Singh, Armando J.L. Pombeiro and Brij Mohan 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Quantum States of Light 112 5.2.1 Quantization of Optical Field 112 5.3 Quantum Superposition 114 5.4 Quantum Entanglement 115 5.5 Coherent Light 116 5.6 Photonic Integration 117 5.7 Photon Combs 119 5.8 Photonic-Chip-Based Frequency Combs 120 5.9 Double Photon Combs 121 5.10 Applications 122 5.10.1 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 122 5.11 Quantum Computing 124 5.12 Quantum Metrology 124 5.13 Quantum Imaging 125 5.14 Challenge 126 5.15 Conclusion and Outlooks 127 Acknowledgments 127 References 128 6 Quantum Computing with Chip-Scale Devices 133 P. Mallika, P. Ashok, N. Sathishkumar, Harishchander Anandaram, N.A. Natraj and Sarala Patchala 6.1 Quantum Computing: An Introduction to the Field 134 6.1.1 Overview of Quantum Computing 134 6.1.2 Historical Development 134 6.1.3 Topography of Quantum Technology 135 6.1.4 Quantum Chip Scale Devices 135 6.2 Fundamentals of Chip-Scale Quantum Devices 136 6.2.1 Benefits of Chip-Scale Devices in the Field of Quantum Communication 136 6.2.2 Principles of Quantum Superposition 137 6.2.3 Quantum Entanglement in Chip-Scale Systems 138 6.2.4 Quantum Bits (Qubits) and Chip Integration 139 6.3 Chip-Scale Quantum Architectures 140 6.3.1 Quantum Gates on a Chip 140 6.3.2 Quantum Circuits 141 6.3.3 Key Aspects Pertaining to Quantum Circuits 142 6.3.4 Challenges and Advances in Chip-Scale Architectures 143 6.4 Applications of Chip-Scale Quantum Computing 145 6.4.1 Materials Science and Drug Discovery 145 6.4.2 Financial Modeling and Risk Analysis 145 6.4.3 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 147 6.4.4 Cryptography and Cybersecurity 148 6.4.5 Logistics and Optimization 149 6.5 Chip-Scale Quantum Computing: Challenges and Future Directions 150 6.5.1 Challenges and Opportunities 151 6.5.2 Future Opportunities of Quantum Computing Chip-Scale Devices 152 6.6 Conclusion 154 References 155 7 Quantum-Enhanced THz Spectroscopy: Bridging the Gap with On-Chip Devices 159 Driss Soubane and Tsuneyuki Ozaki 7.1 Introduction 160 7.2 T-Radiations Generation and Detection 163 7.2.1 Photo-Conductive Antenna 167 7.2.2 Semiconducting Materials Built-In Field 169 7.2.3 The Photo-Dember Effect 170 7.2.4 Optical Rectification for THz Generation 171 7.2.5 Electro-Optical Sampling 172 7.2.6 Wide Band Generation and Sensing 172 7.2.7 Quasi-Phase-Matching 173 7.2.8 Quantum Cascade Laser THz Source 174 7.3 Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging 174 7.3.1 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy 175 7.3.1.1 Principle 176 7.3.2 Time-Resolved THz Spectroscopy 177 7.3.3 THz Imaging 179 7.3.3.1 T‐Ray Imaging 179 7.3.3.2 Reflection Imaging with T‐Rays 180 7.3.3.3 THz Near‐Field Imaging 181 7.4 Recent Developments in THz Technology 181 7.4.1 THz Spectroscopy 181 7.4.2 THz-TDS 182 7.4.3 Medical Applications 182 7.4.4 THz Near-Field Imaging 183 7.5 Future Outlooks in THz Technology 184 7.6 Conclusion 186 Acknowledgment 187 References 187 8 Plasmonics and Microfluidics for Developing Chip-Based Sensors 199 Akila Chithravel, Tulika Srivastava, Subhojyoti Sinha, Sandeep Munjal, Satish Lakkakula, Shailendra K. Saxena and Anand M. Shrivastav 8.1 Introduction 200 8.2 Microfluidics for Sensor Technologies 201 8.3 Plasmonic-Based Sensors 204 8.3.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance for Chip-Based Sensing 205 8.3.1.1 Prism-Based SPR Sensor 206 8.3.1.2 Fiber Optic-Based SPR Sensor Chip 210 8.3.1.3 Grating Coupled- SPR for Chip-Based Sensing 212 8.3.1.4 Waveguide-Based SPR Sensing 213 8.3.2 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR)-Based Sensor Chips 215 8.3.3 Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering for Chip-Based Sensor 217 8.4 Challenges and Future Scope 219 8.5 Summary 221 References 221 9 Silicon Photonics in Quantum Computing 227 M. Rizwan, A. Ayub, M.A. Waris, A. Manzoor, S. Ilyas and F. Waqas 9.1 Introduction 228 9.2 Overview of Quantum Computing 229 9.2.1 Quantum Physics and Qu-Bits 229 9.2.2 Quantum Gates 230 9.3 Significance of Photonics in Quantum Computing 230 9.3.1 Quantum-Light-Sources 231 9.3.2 Tunable Quantum-Photonic-Components 232 9.3.3 Single-Photon-Detectors (SPDs) 232 9.3.4 Chip Wrapping and System Amalgamation 232 9.4 Fundamentals of Silicon Photonics 233 9.4.1 Quantum Computing Technologies 234 9.4.2 Scalable Methods for Silicon Photonic Chips 234 9.5 Single-Photon Sources 236 9.6 Quantum Photon Detection 238 9.7 Mode-Division Multiplexing (MDM) and Wavelength- Division Multiplexing (WDM) 238 9.8 Cryogenic Practices 239 9.9 Chip Interconnects 240 9.10 Chip-Based Quantum Communication 241 9.11 QKD in Silicon Photonics 241 9.11.1 Entanglement-Based QKD 244 9.11.1.1 Entanglement-Based Protocols 245 9.11.1.2 Working on Entanglement-Based QKD 245 9.11.2 Superposition-Based QKD 246 9.11.3 CV-QKD (Continuous-Variable QKD) 247 9.11.4 Coherent State QKD 247 9.11.5 Multiplexing Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 248 9.11.6 Types of Multiplexing QKD 248 9.11.6.1 FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexing) 248 9.11.6.2 TDM (Time-Division Multiplexing) 249 9.11.6.3 PDM (Polarization-Division Multiplexing) 249 9.11.6.4 OAMM (Orbital Angular Momentum Multiplexing) 249 9.12 Application of Silicone Photonics in Quantum Computing 250 9.13 Multiphoton and High-Dimensional Applications 252 9.14 Quantum Error Correction 255 9.15 Quantum State Teleportation 257 9.16 Challenges and Outcomes 261 9.17 Low Loss Component 261 9.18 Photon Generation 262 9.19 Deterministic Quantum Operation 263 9.20 Frequency Conversion 264 9.21 Conclusion 264 References 265 10 Rare-Earth Ions in Solid-State Devices 273 M. Rizwan, K. Zaman, S. Ahmad, A. Ayub and M. Tanveer 10.1 Introduction 274 10.2 Basic Aspects of Rare Earth Ions in Solids 275 10.3 Role of Rare Earth Ions in Quantum Optics 276 10.4 Rare Earth Ion-Based Devices 277 10.4.1 Quantum Computer 278 10.5 Quantum Photonic Materials and Devices with Rare-Earth Elements 279 10.6 Recent Advancements in Low-Dimensional Rare-Earth Doped Material 280 10.7 Rare Earth Ions Insulator 281 10.8 Spectral Hole Burning (SHB) and Spectral Recording and Processing 283 10.8.1 Optical Communication and Processing 283 10.9 Spectroscopy and the Description of Materials 283 10.9.1 Overcoming Blazing Spectral Holes 284 10.10 Utilizing a SHB “Dynamic Optical Filter” for Laser Line Narrowing 284 10.11 Example of Ultrasonic-Optical Tissue Imaging 285 10.11.1 Elements of Ultrasound Optical Tissue (USO) Imaging System 287 10.12 Applications of Solid-State Optical Devices 288 Conclusion 289 References 290 11 Chip-Scale Quantum Memories 295 Uzma Hira and Muhammad Husnain 11.1 Introduction 296 11.1.1 Quantum Memories (QMs) 297 11.1.2 Journey from Classical RAM to Quantum RAM 297 11.1.3 Classical Memories (CMs) and Quantum Memories (QMs) 298 11.2 Scalable Quantum Memories (QMs) 299 11.2.1 Some Fruitful Properties of QMs on Chip 299 11.2.2 Performance Criteria 301 11.2.2.1 Fidelity 302 11.2.2.2 Efficiency 302 11.2.2.3 Storage Time 302 11.2.2.4 Bandwidth 302 11.2.2.5 Multimodality 303 11.2.2.6 Wavelength 303 11.2.2.7 Robustness and Scalability 303 11.3 Challenges in the Development of Scalable QMs 303 11.4 Experimental and Theoretical Approaches Towards QMs 304 11.5 Platforms for Chip-Scale QMs 306 11.5.1 Atomic Gases 306 11.5.2 Single Atom 307 11.5.3 Solid-State Candidate in the Progress of QMs on Chip 307 11.5.3.1 Trapped Ions in Solids 308 11.5.3.2 Material Stability and Coherence Time 308 11.5.3.3 Quantum Error Correction 308 11.5.3.4 Integration with Quantum Repeaters 309 11.5.3.5 Compatibility with Quantum Communication Protocols 309 11.6 Rare-Earth Ions Doped in Solids 309 11.7 Nitrogen Vacancy (NV) 310 11.8 Quantum Dots in the Development of QMs 311 11.9 III-V Groups Materials-Based Platform 312 11.10 Role Graphene in QM 313 11.11 Hybrid Quantum Memories 314 11.12 Chip-Based QMs in the Improvements of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 315 11.12.1 Enhancing QKD Performance 315 11.13 Role of Optics and Photonics in the Field of Chip-Scale QMs 316 11.14 Recent Development in QMs 318 References 319 12 Integrated Light Sources 323 Uzma Hira and Muhammad Nayab Ahmad 12.1 Introduction 324 12.2 Types of Integrated Light Sources 325 12.2.1 Semiconductor Diode Lasers and LEDs 325 12.2.2 White GaN LEDs 326 12.2.3 Quantum Dots and Nanowire Emitters 326 12.2.4 Path-Entangled Photon Sources on Nonlinear Chips 327 12.2.5 Silicon Photonics Light Sources 328 12.2.6 Heterogeneously Integrated III-V/Si Lasers 329 12.2.7 Single Photon Sources in Integrated Photonics 330 12.2.8 Tunable and Narrowband Light Sources 331 12.2.9 Micro-Cavity and Photonic Crystal Resonator Sources 332 12.2.10 Micro-Fabricated Solid-State Dye Laser 334 12.2.11 Rare-Earth Doped Waveguides for Integrated Light Generation 334 12.3 Integrated Light Sources for Quantum Information Processing 335 12.3.1 Photonic Quantum Chips 336 12.3.2 Photons as Good Quantum Hardware 336 12.3.3 Photonic Technologies 337 12.3.4 Protocols for Quantum Communication 337 12.4 Integration Techniques for Light Sources on Chips 337 12.4.1 Heterogeneous Integration 337 12.4.1.1 Components in Integration 338 12.4.1.2 Applications 339 12.4.2 Monolithic Integration 339 12.4.2.1 Components in Integration 339 12.4.2.2 Applications 339 12.4.3 On-Chip Waveguides 340 12.4.3.1 Applications 341 12.4.4 Hybrid Integration 341 12.4.4.1 Applications 342 12.4.5 Epitaxial Growth 342 12.4.5.1 Methods of Epitaxial Growth 343 12.4.5.2 Applications 343 12.4.6 Nanowire or Quantum Dot Integration 344 12.4.6.1 Applications 344 12.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 345 12.5.1 Challenges 345 12.5.2 Future Perspectives 346 12.6 Conclusion 347 References 347 13 Integrated Optical Design Principles 351 Sharbari Deb and Santanu Mallik Abbreviations 352 13.1 Introduction 352 13.2 Brief History of Optical Design Evolution 353 13.3 Role of Integrated Optical Design in Modern Technology 354 13.4 Fundamentals of Integrated Optics 355 13.4.1 Basic Concepts in Optical Physics Relevant to Integration 355 13.4.2 Waveguides: Types, Properties, and How They Guide Light 355 13.4.2.1 Types of Waveguides 356 13.4.2.2 Characteristics of Waveguides 356 13.4.2.3 Light Guidance Principles 357 13.5 Design Principles of Integrated Optical Devices 358 13.5.1 Beam Propagation Method for Integrated Optical Design 358 13.5.2 Couplers, Splitters, and Combiners: Design and Function 359 13.5.2.1 Optical Coupler 360 13.5.2.2 Optical Splitter 361 13.5.2.3 Optical Combiner 361 13.5.3 Integrated Lasers and Amplifiers: Principles and Applications 362 13.5.4 Modulators and Switches 363 13.5.4.1 Optical Modulators 363 13.5.4.2 Optical Switches: Mechanisms and Applications 364 13.6 Advanced Integrated Optical Systems 365 13.6.1 Photonic Crystals 365 13.6.2 Quantum Optics and Integration 365 13.6.3 Nonlinear Optical Devices 366 13.6.4 Integration of Optical Sensors 366 13.7 Fabrication Techniques for Integrated Optical Devices 367 13.7.1 Lithography and Etching 367 13.7.2 Wafer Bonding and Dielectric Deposition 368 13.7.3 Challenges in Fabrication 368 13.8 Testing and Characterization of Integrated Optical Systems 369 13.8.1 Measurement Techniques 369 13.8.2 Characterization of Waveguides, Resonators, and Active Devices 370 13.8.3 Reliability and Performance Testing 370 13.9 Conclusion 371 References 372 Index 379

About the Author :
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of awards, including the Department of Science and Technology, India, Fast-Track Young Scientist Award and Young Researcher of the Year Award 2020 from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published about 210 research articles in various international scientific journals, many book chapters, and dozens of edited books, many with Wiley-Scrivener. Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his doctorate degree from University of Adelaide, Australia in the year 2014 with Dean’s Commendation for Doctoral Thesis Excellence. He has worked as head of the Chemistry Department at Taif university and Vice Dean of Science College. In 2015, one of his works was nominated for Green Tech awards from Germany, Europe’s largest environmental Naif Ahmed Alshehri, PhD, is an assistant professor of Nanotechnology at the Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences at Al-Baha University. He is currently the vice-dean of postgraduate studies, research, innovation and quality. Prior to this position, he was the head of the Physics Department. His research interests include fabrication, characterization, and applications of nanomaterials and thin films. Jorddy Neves Cruz is a researcher at the Federal University of Pará and the Emilio Goeldi Museum. He has experience in multidisciplinary research in the areas of medicinal chemistry, drug design, extraction of bioactive compounds, extraction of essential oils, food chemistry and biological testing. He has published several research articles in scientific journals and is an associate editor of the Journal of Medicine.