Porphyrin-Based Composites: Materials and Applications

Discover the transformative potential of porphyrin-based composites in Porphyrin-Based Composites where readers will learn how these innovative materials enhance industrial sectors by combining multiple porphyrin components to create durable, sensitive, and efficient technologies that outperform traditional materials. This book highlights the benefits of adopting porphyrin composites and discusses how they are used in different industrial sectors. Combining multiple porphyrin components is used to create materials with properties that are not possible with individual components, remove restrictions of water-insolubility, and ultimately lead to the development of durable and more sensitive technological materials. Composite materials have been essential to human life for thousands of years, beginning with the construction of houses by the first civilizations and advancing to modern technologies. Originating in the mid-twentieth century, composite materials show promise as a class of engineering materials that offer new opportunities for contemporary technology and have been beneficially incorporated into practically every sector due to their ability to choose elements, tune them to achieve the desired qualities, and efficiently use those features through design. Additionally, composite materials offer greater strength- and modulus-to-weight ratios than standard engineering materials. Materials based on porphyrin composites are used in a wide range of applications, including sensors, molecular probes, electrical gadgets, electronic devices, construction materials, catalysis, medicine, and environmental and energy applications. Readers will find the book: Provides an overview of several porphyrin composites as model materials for commercial settings; Discusses fundamental, experimental, and theoretical research on structural and physicochemical properties of porphyrin composites; Demonstrates how complementary and alternative material designs that use porphyrin composites have evolved; Emphasizes important uses for cutting-edge, multipurpose materials that might contribute to a more sustainable society; Opens new possibilities by examining the role of developing unique hybrid, composite, and higher-order hierarchical materials that may be utilized to make valuable chemicals. Audience Researchers, academicians, chemists, industry experts, and students working in the fields of materials and environmental sciences, engineering, textiles, biology, and medicine.

Table of Contents:
Preface xxi Part I: Overview of Porphyrins 1 1 Composite Materials Utilizing Porphyrin Template: An Overview 3 Umar Ali Dar, Shazia Nabi and Mohd Shahnawaz 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Development and Construction of Porphyrin Composites 5 1.2.1 Porphyrin Synthesis and Functionalization 6 1.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 7 1.3 Applications of Porphyrin-Based Composites 8 1.3.1 Energy 9 1.3.2 Device Materials 9 1.3.3 Remediation 9 1.3.4 Nanotechnology 9 1.3.5 Agriculture 10 1.3.6 Catalysis 10 1.4 Future Perspectives 10 1.5 Conclusion 10 References 11 2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 19 Kishor Kumar Roy, Sudipto Mangal, Anirban Karak and Ankita Acharya 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Synthesis Methods for Porphyrin Composites 21 2.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Techniques 21 2.2.2 Sol-Gel Methodology 22 2.2.3 Electrospinning and Electrochemical Deposition 22 2.2.4 Green Synthesis Approaches 24 2.2.5 Organometallic Methodologies for Synthesis 25 2.2.6 Comparative Analysis of Synthesis Techniques 26 2.3 Characterization Techniques 27 2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) for Morphological Analysis 27 2.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) for Structural Investigation 28 2.3.3 Spectroscopic Techniques (UV-Vis and FTIR) for Chemical Analysis 29 2.3.4 Mechanical Testing Methods (Tensile, Compression, and Flexural) 30 2.4 Physical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 30 2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity and Stability 31 2.4.2 Optical Properties and Light Absorption 32 2.4.3 Electrical Conductivity and Dielectric Properties 33 2.4.4 Magnetic Properties and Spin Dynamics 33 2.5 Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials 34 2.5.1 Tensile Strength and Elastic Modulus 35 2.5.2 Flexural Strength and Toughness 35 2.5.3 Impact Resistance and Fracture Toughness 36 2.5.4 Fatigue Behavior and Endurance Limit 36 2.6 Influence of Porphyrin Functionalization on Properties 37 2.6.1 Impact of Peripheral Substitution 37 2.6.2 Functional Groups and Surface Modification 37 2.6.3 Doping and Alloying Effects 37 2.6.4 Interfacial Interactions in Composite Systems 38 2.7 Applications of Porphyrin Composite Materials 38 2.7.1 Photovoltaics and Solar Cells 38 2.7.2 Sensing and Detection Technologies 39 2.7.3 Biomedical and Drug Delivery Applications 39 2.7.4 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 40 2.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives 40 2.9 Conclusion 41 References 42 3 Porphyrin Composite Materials Analysis, Design, Manufacturing and Production 47 Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Porphyrin Aspects 49 3.2.1 Methods for Obtaining & Producing Porphyrins 50 3.2.1.1 Synthesis 50 3.2.1.2 Trans-Substituted Porphyrins 53 3.2.1.3 Obtaining A 2 BC Tetra-Substituted Porphyrins 53 3.3 The Analogs Design of Porphyrins 54 3.3.1 Analogs of Porphyrins 54 3.3.1.1 Chlorines and Bacteriochlorines 54 3.4 Composites 55 3.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Composites 55 3.4.2 Nano Porphyrin-Based Composites 55 3.4.3 (GQDs) and Porphyrin Composites 56 3.4.4 Graphene Oxide-Porphyrin Composites 57 3.4.5 Metalloporphyrins 57 3.5 Types of Porphyrin-Based Composites Framework 58 3.5.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs 58 3.5.2 Porphyrin-Based COFs 59 3.5.3 Porphyrin-Based HOFs 60 3.6 Few Important Methods for Analysis of Porphyrins 61 3.6.1 Spectrophotometric Methods 61 3.6.2 Voltammetric Analysis 61 3.6.3 Analysis by HPLC Method 62 3.7 Conclusion 63 References 63 4 Advanced Characterization Methods and Characterization Types for Porphyrins 71 Elif Esra Altuner, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Types of Characterization Techniques Utilized for Porphyrins Analysis 72 4.2.1 UV-Vis Analysis and Spectrometric Properties 72 4.2.2 NMR Analysis of Porphyrins 74 4.2.3 Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Porphyrins 74 4.3 HOMO-LUMO Relations for Porphyrins 75 4.4 Optical and Electro-Field Analysis 76 4.5 Applications in Solar Cells 76 4.6 DLS Analysis for Porphyrins 78 4.7 AFM Analysis for Porphyrins 79 4.8 Conclusion 80 References 80 Part II: Source, Design, Manufacturing, Properties and Fundamentals 87 5 Spectroscopic Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 89 Vennila S., Wai Siong Chai, Kuan Shiong Khoo, Loganathan K. and Pau Loke Show 5.1 Introduction 90 5.2 Porphyrins 93 5.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Porphyrins 94 5.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin 95 5.3.1 Adler-Longo Process of Porphyrin 95 5.3.2 Porphyrin Synthesis in Two Steps with a Single Flask at Ambient Temperature 96 5.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposites Materials 96 5.4.1 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Metal and Oxide Nanomaterials 96 5.4.2 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Polymers 98 5.4.3 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with Biological Materials 99 5.4.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials with CNT or Carbon Fibers 99 5.5 Properties of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials 100 5.5.1 Spectral Properties 100 5.5.1.1 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 101 5.5.1.2 FTIR Spectroscopy 103 5.5.1.3 XRD Analysis 104 5.5.1.4 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 105 5.5.2 Nonlinear Optical Characteristics 105 5.6 Conclusion 106 References 107 6 Electrochemical Advancements in Porphyrin Materials: From Fundamentals to Electrocatalytic Applications 113 Alma Mejri and Abdelmoneim Mars 6.1 Introduction 114 6.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals of Porphyrin-Based Materials 115 6.2.1 Electrochemical Behavior of Porphyrin 116 6.2.2 Key Parameters Influencing Porphyrin Electrochemistry 118 6.2.3 Electrochemical Porphyrin-Based Materials 120 6.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalysis Applications 124 6.3.1 Electrocatalysis Fundamentals 126 6.3.2 Porphyrin-Based Materials for CO 2 Reduction 127 6.3.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalytic Water Splitting 131 6.3.3.1 Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 132 6.3.3.2 Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction 135 6.3.3.3 Overall Electrochemical Water Spilling 139 6.4 Conclusion and Outlooks 142 References 143 7 Manifestation of Porphyrin Composites in Variety of Photocatalytic Processes 153 Jyoti Rani, Varinder Singh and Gaurav Goel 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Porphyrin Composites 155 7.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites 156 7.4 Photocatalytic Applications of Porphyrin Composites 156 7.4.1 Photocatalytic Production of Hydrogen Fuel by Water Splitting 158 7.4.1.1 Metal Oxides–Porphyrin Composites 159 7.4.1.2 Carbon Material–Porphyrin Composites 160 7.4.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes and Organic Pollutants 161 7.4.2.1 Conversion of CO 2 to Value-Added Chemicals 164 7.5 Conclusions 166 References 166 8 The Use of Porphyrin Composite Materials as Catalyst in a Variety of Application Sectors 173 Shagufta Parveen M. A. Ansari and Riyaz Ahmad Dar 8.1 Introduction 174 8.2 Related Works 178 8.3 Porphyrin-Based MOFs: Synthesis Methods, Structural Characteristics, and Characterization Techniques 181 8.3.1 Synthesis Methods 182 8.3.2 Structural Characteristics and Characterization Techniques 184 8.4 Design and Construction of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185 8.4.1 Design of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 185 8.4.2 Porphyrin-Based MOF Construction 186 8.4.2.1 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Carboxylic Acid Linkers 186 8.4.2.2 Porphyrin-Based MOFs with Nitrogen- Containing Heterocyclic Linkers 187 8.5 Application of Porphyrin-Based MOFs 188 8.5.1 PhotoCatalytic Evolution of Hydrogen 188 8.5.2 Catalytic Photolysis of CO 2 190 8.5.3 Photocatalytic Fixation of Nitrogen 192 8.5.4 Photocatalytic Removal of Pollutants 192 8.5.5 Photocatalytic Synthesis of Organic Compounds 193 8.5.6 Biosensing 194 8.5.7 Photodynamic Therapy with Porphyrin-Based MOFs 195 8.5.8 Advances in Fluorescence Imaging for Targeted Therapy 195 8.5.9 Sensing of pH 196 8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope 197 References 198 Part III: Advantages and Applications of Porphyrin Composites Materials 201 9 Porphyrin Composites Provide New Design and Building Construction Options 203 Xiaoquan Lu 9.1 Introduction 204 9.2 The Design Idea of Porphyrin Compound Material 205 9.2.1 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins MOFs 206 9.2.2 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrin COFs 206 9.2.3 Design and Synthesis of Porphyrins HOFs 206 9.2.4 Design and Synthesis of Other Porphyrin-Based Composites 207 9.3 Construction of Porphyrin Electrochemiluminescence Molecules 208 9.3.1 Introduction to Electrochemiluminescence 208 9.3.2 Electrochemiluminescence Mechanism 208 9.3.3 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Molecules Constructed by Molecular Regulation 210 9.3.4 Electrochemical Luminescence of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 215 9.3.5 Interfacial Electron-Induced Electrochemiluminescence 218 9.4 Construction and Characterization of Porphyrin Surface Interface Transport Molecules 219 9.4.1 Study of the Electron Transfer Process of Porphyrin at the Liquid/Liquid Interface 219 9.4.2 Study and Regulation of Photosensitized Materials and Their Models of Porphyrins 222 9.4.3 Regulation of the Porphyrin Interface 223 9.5 Composite of Porphyrins with Carbon-Based Materials 226 9.5.1 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized Graphene Nanomaterials 226 9.5.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 228 9.5.3 Construction of Porphyrin Functionalized g-C 3 N 4 230 9.5.4 Construction of Porphyrin-Functionalized Fullerenes 231 9.6 Porphyrin-Based MOFs, COFs, HOFs Porous Materials and Properties 233 9.6.1 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin MOFs 233 9.6.2 Introduction and Application of Porphyrin COFs 236 9.6.3 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin HOFs 238 9.6.4 Brief Introduction and Application of Porphyrin POPs 240 9.7 Construction of Composite Materials of Porphyrins and Metal Nanoparticles 242 9.7.1 Construction and Application of Composite Materials 242 9.7.2 Construction of Porphyrin-Based Core-Shell Structure Nanomaterials 243 9.8 Properties of Porphyrin Nuclei 244 9.9 Application of Porphyrin Nuclei 244 9.10 Conclusion and Perspectives 246 Acknowledgments 247 References 247 10 A Comprehensive Review of Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Development of Porphyria, Due to Defective Porphyrin Biosynthesis in the Human Body 259 Santhosh Kumar Rajamani and Radha Srinivasan Iyer 10.1 Porphyrin Composites in Medicine – An Introduction 260 10.2 Nature of Porphyrins 260 10.3 Porphyrin Biosynthesis in Humans 260 10.4 Porphyria- Erythropoietic Disorders Due to Defects in Porphyrin Metabolism 262 10.4.1 Acute Porphyrias 263 10.4.1.1 Hepatic Porphyrias 264 10.4.2 Cutaneous Porphyrias 264 10.4.2.1 Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP) 265 10.4.2.2 Hereditary Coproporphyria (HCP) 266 10.4.2.3 Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria (cep) 266 10.4.2.4 Porphyria Cutanea Tarda (PCT) 267 10.4.2.5 Variegate Porphyria (VP) 268 10.4.2.6 Erythropoietic Protoporphyria (EPP) 268 10.5 Acquired Porphyrias Due to EXCESsive Arsenic and Lead Exposure 268 10.6 Diagnosis of Porphyrias 269 10.7 Newer Therapeutics for Porphyrias: Givosiran Treatment and Afamelanotide Application 270 10.8 Conclusion 270 Bibliography 271 11 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles and Their Potential Scopes for Targeted Drug Delivery and Cancer Therapy 273 Prem Rajak, Sayanti Podder, Satadal Adhikary, Suchandra Bhattacharya, Saurabh Sarkar, Moutushi Mandi, Abhratanu Ganguly, Manas Paramanik and Sudip Paramanik 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Porphyrin and Their Advantage in Medical Science 276 11.3 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles (PBNPs) 279 11.3.1 Porphysome 279 11.3.2 Cerasomes 280 11.4 Porphyrin-Based Micelles 280 11.4.1 Porphyrin-Based Polymeric NPs 281 11.4.2 Nanocarriers (NCs) 281 11.5 Porphyrin-Conjugated Mesenchymal Stem Cells 282 11.6 Metal-Metalloporphyrin Frameworks (MMPFs) 282 11.7 Porphyrin-Loaded Covalent-Organic Frameworks (COFs) 282 11.8 Porphyrin-Based Noble Metallic NPs 283 11.9 Porphyrin-Based Quantum Dots 284 11.10 Implication of PBNPs in Targeted Drug Delivery 285 11.11 Potential Scope of PB-NPs in Disease Diagnosis and Treatment 288 11.12 Limitations 290 11.13 Conclusions 291 References 292 12 Role and Scope of Porphyrin Composites in Biotechnology 299 Elif Esra Altuner, Ghassan Issa, Fatih Sen and Umar Ali Dar 12.1 Introduction 300 12.2 Therapeutic Roles of Porphyrins 301 12.3 The Role of Porphyrins in Medical Imaging 303 12.3.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Role of Porphyrins 304 12.3.2 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) and Its Role in Porphyrins 305 12.3.3 Fluorescence Imaging and Its Role in Porphyrins 306 12.4 Bifunctional Functions of Porphyrin Conjugates 306 12.5 Conclusion 307 References 308 13 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage and Conversion 315 Shazia Nabi and Umar Ali Dar 13.1 Introduction 316 13.2 Porphyrin-Based Composites 318 13.2.1 Functionalization of the Porphyrin with Conducting Polymers (CPs) 319 13.2.2 Functionalization with Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 320 13.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Framework Materials 322 13.3 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage 324 13.3.1 Porphyrin Composites as Capacitors 324 13.3.2 Porphyrin Composites as Batteries 330 13.4 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Conversion 338 13.4.1 Oxygen Evolution Reaction 341 13.4.2 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 344 13.4.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction Reaction (CO 2 Rr) 348 13.5 Summary and Conclusions 352 References 354 14 Porous Organic Frameworks Based on Porphyrinoids for Clean Energy 367 Kharu Nisa, Ishfaq Ahmad Lone, Waseem Arif and Preeti Singh 14.1 Introduction 368 14.2 COFs in Catalysis 368 14.3 COF-Based Organic Materials and Their Synthesis 369 14.3.1 Interfacial Synthesis 369 14.3.2 Conventional Synthetic Methods 370 14.3.3 Strategies of Multistep Synthesis (MSS) and Multicomponent Reaction (MCR) 371 14.4 Designing of Porphyrin-Based COF Catalysts 372 14.4.1 Post-Modification Methods 373 14.4.2 MOFs as Electrocatalysts for CO 2 Rr 373 14.5 Conclusion 376 Acknowledgment 377 References 377 15 Porphyrin Composite Materials as an Electrode, a Material for Thin Films and Battery Components 383 Md. Al-Riad Tonmoy, Sidur Rahman, Md. Iqbal Hossain, Abu Shahid Ahmed and A.K.M. Ahsanul Habib 15.1 Introduction 384 15.2 Porphyrin Composites as Electrode Materials 385 15.2.1 Role of the Electrode in Energy Storage Devices 385 15.2.1.1 Energy Storage 385 15.2.1.2 Charge Transfer 386 15.2.1.3 Electrode Design 388 15.2.2 Electrochemical Properties of Porphyrin Composites 389 15.2.2.1 Electron Transfer Capability 389 15.2.2.2 Catalytic Activity 390 15.2.2.3 Electroactive Sites 392 15.2.2.4 Charge Storage 392 15.2.2.5 Stability and Reversibility 393 15.2.3 Role as Electrode in Fuel Cell 394 15.2.3.1 Electrocatalyst in ORR of Fuel Cells 395 15.3 Porphyrin Composites in Battery Components 398 15.3.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIB) 399 15.3.1.1 Porphyrin Composite as Cathode Materials in LIB 399 15.3.1.2 Porphyrin Composite as Anode Materials in LIB 402 15.3.2 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 404 15.3.3 Sodium-Ion Batteries 405 15.3.4 Redox-Flow Batteries 406 15.4 Thin Films of Porphyrin Composites 408 15.4.1 Thin Film Deposition Techniques for Porphyrin Composites 408 15.4.1.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 408 15.4.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 410 15.4.1.3 Comparison with PVD and CVD 411 15.5 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE) 412 15.6 Structural and Morphological Properties of Porphyrin Composite Thin Films 415 15.6.1 Electronic and Optoelectronic Properties of Porphyrin Thin Films 416 15.6.2 Electronic Band Structure and Conductivity 416 15.7 Applications of Porphyrin Thin Films in Various Sectors 417 15.7.1 Sensors 417 15.7.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells 419 15.8 Future Directions and Emerging Trends 420 15.9 Current State of Porphyrin Composite Research 420 15.10 Emerging Trends in Porphyrin Composite Materials 420 15.11 Future Prospects and Potential Breakthroughs 421 15.12 Conclusion 422 References 423 16 Porphyrin Composite Materials as Electronic Component: Electronic Devices and Electronic Gadgets 431 Meenakshi Patyal, Kirandeep Kaur, Nidhi Gupta and Ashok Kumar Malik 16.1 Introduction 431 16.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin and Porphyrin Composite Materials 433 16.2.1 Synthesis of Porphyrin 433 16.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composite Materials 434 16.3 Porphyrin Composite Materials for Electronic Gadgets and Devices 434 16.3.1 Porphyrin Composite–Based Metal-Organic Frameworks (PP-MOFs) 435 16.3.2 Porphyrin Composite–Based Covalent Organic Frameworks (PP-COFs) 436 16.3.3 Metal Phthalocyanine (MPc)–Based Organic Thin-Film Transistors 438 16.3.4 Metal-Based Porphyrin Composites as Functional Devices 438 16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 440 References 440 17 Advances of Porphyrin Composites for the Effective Adsorption and Degradation of Pollutants 443 Vemula Madhavi and A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy 17.1 Introduction 444 17.2 Structural Features of Porphyrin Composites 446 17.3 Synthesis and Properties of Different Porphyrin Composites 448 17.3.1 Metal-Porphyrin Composites/Metalloporphyrins 449 17.3.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Porphyrin Composites 450 17.3.3 Polymer-Based Porphyrins 451 17.3.4 Nanomaterial-Based Porphyrin 452 17.4 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Selective Adsorption of Pollutants 456 17.4.1 Adsorptive Removal of Organic Contaminants 456 17.4.2 Adsorptive Degradation of Inorganic Contaminants 460 17.5 Desorption, Regeneration, and Reusability of Porphyrin Materials 463 17.6 Concluding Remarks 464 References 465 18 Thin Film of Porphyrin for Heavy Metal Ion Sensing 473 Parul Taneja and R.K. Gupta 18.1 Introduction 474 18.2 Monolayer of Free Base Porphyrin Molecule and Its Characterization 475 18.2.1 Experimental Setup of Surface Manometry 475 18.2.2 Surface Manometry of Porphyrin Molecule 477 18.2.3 Deposition of Monolayer on Piezoelectric-Based Transducer Surface 479 18.2.4 Characterization of Porphyrin Film 480 18.3 Sensing Application of Tetraphenylporphyrin 481 18.3.1 Piezoelectric-Based Sensing Setup 481 18.3.2 Sensing of Cationic Species Using ILS Film of Porphyrin 484 18.3.3 Characterization of Sensing Layer After Interaction with Metal Ions 486 18.4 Conclusion 488 References 489 19 Porphyrin Composite in the Agriculture and Food Industries 491 Debarpan Dutta 19.1 Introduction 491 19.2 Background 493 19.3 Impact on Agriculture 494 19.3.1 Supply of Agrochemicals 494 19.3.2 Detection of Poisonous Chemicals (Toxins) 497 19.3.3 Removal of Toxins 500 19.3.4 Detection of Toxic Metal Ions 502 19.3.5 Removal of Poisonous Metal Ions 503 19.3.6 Photo-Radiated Anti-Microbial Action 504 19.4 Impact on Food Industry 506 19.4.1 Some Recent Investigations of Metal-Porphyrin Related to Food Industry 506 19.4.2 Use as Food Colorants 508 19.5 Conclusion 511 References 512 20 Porphyrin Nanocomposites for Synergistic Treatment and Diagnostics: Biostability, Biocompatibility, and Therapeutic Efficacy 519 Arindam Mitra 20.1 Introduction 520 20.2 Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521 20.2.1 Challenges of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 521 20.2.2 Strategies to Address the Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 522 20.2.3 Evaluation of Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 523 20.3 Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524 20.3.1 Challenges of Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 524 20.3.2 Strategies to Improve the Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 525 20.3.3 Assessments of Biocompatibility In Vitro and In Vivo 527 20.4 Therapeutic Efficacy of Porphyrin Nanocomposites 527 20.4.1 Diagnostics Applications of Porphyrin Composites 530 20.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges 532 20.6 Conclusions 534 References 536 21 Diversity, Stability, and Selectivity for Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 539 Aafaq Tantray, Nitin Rode, Lina Khandare and Umar Ali Dar 21.1 Introduction 539 21.2 Diversity in Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 541 21.2.1 Metalloporphyrins 541 21.2.2 Covalent Porphyrin Frameworks (CPF) 542 21.2.3 Porphyrin-Based Polymer Materials 542 21.2.4 Porphyrin Nanoparticles 542 21.2.5 Self-Assembled Porphyrin Materials 542 21.3 Introduction to Various Composite Materials Incorporating Porphyrins 542 21.3.1 Organic-Inorganic Hybrids 542 21.3.2 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 543 21.3.3 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 543 21.3.4 Polymers and Polymer Composites 543 21.4 Stability of Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials 544 21.4.1 Chemical Stability 544 21.4.2 Thermal Stability 546 21.4.3 Mechanical Stability 546 21.5 Strategies to Enhance Stability of Porphyrins 547 21.5.1 Design and Synthesis Approaches 547 21.5.2 Surface Modifications and Encapsulation Techniques 547 21.5.3 Post-Synthetic Stabilization Methods 548 21.6 Conclusions 548 References 549 22 Future Scope, Performance, Challenges, and Opportunities of Porphyrin Composite Materials 553 N. H. Vasoya and K. B. Modi 22.1 Introduction 553 22.2 Future Scope of Porphyrin Composite Materials 554 22.2.1 Enhanced Optoelectronic Properties 554 22.2.2 Advanced Energy Conversion Systems 555 22.2.3 Catalysis and Environmental Applications 556 22.2.4 Biomedical Applications and Therapeutics 558 22.2.5 Sensing and Detection 559 22.2.6 Emerging Fields and Cross-Disciplinary Applications 560 22.3 Performance Characteristics of Porphyrin Composite Materials 562 22.3.1 Optical Properties 562 22.3.2 Electrical Conductivity 564 22.3.3 Thermal Stability 565 22.3.4 Mechanical Strength and Flexibility 566 22.3.5 Chemical Stability 568 22.3.6 Charge Transfer and Transport Properties 569 22.4 Challenges in Developing Porphyrin Composite Materials 571 22.4.1 Scalability and Manufacturing Processes 571 22.4.2 Stability and Longevity 572 22.4.3 Cost-Effectiveness 574 22.4.4 Toxicity and Environmental Concerns 575 22.5 Opportunities for Porphyrin Composite Materials 577 22.5.1 Energy Conversion and Storage 577 22.5.2 Photocatalysis and Water Splitting 580 22.5.3 Environmental Remediation 581 22.5.4 Biomedical Imaging and Therapeutics 584 22.5.5 Chemical and Biological Sensing 587 22.5.6 Smart Materials and Electronics 589 22.6 Conclusion 594 References 594 Index 597

About the Author :
Umar Ali Dar, PhD, is a postdoctoral fellow at the Key Laboratory of Biobased Polymer Materials, College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, China. He has published numerous peer-reviewed articles, books, book chapters, and collaborative projects and serves as an editorial member and reviewer for several internationally published journals. His research expertise includes polymers following organic and inorganic synthesis, particularly in the chemical modification of porphyrins, quinones, anils, and azo compounds, with significant contributions to crystal engineering, materials science, energy applications, sensors, water treatment, and drug discovery. Mohd. Shahnawaz, PhD,is an assistant professor in the Department of Botany at Government Degree College Drass, University of Ladakh, India. He has published 25 research articles, 24 book chapters, and 16 books and serves as a reviewer and editor for several international journals. His research interests include tissue culture of medicinal plants, genetic diversity assessment of medicinal plants using high-resolution molecular marks, enhancement of plant secondary metabolite contents, and biodegradation of plastic. Puja Gupta, PhD, is an associate professor of biotechnology at RIMT University, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, with three years of teaching experience. She has published 15 research articles in international journals, 20 book chapters, and four books and participated in various conferences and workshops. Her research interests include metagenomics, microbiology, microbial genetics, and plant-microbe interactions.