Supernatural as Natural: A Biocultural Approach to Religion

This book provides a general introduction to the biological and evolutionary bases of religion and is suitable for introductory level courses in the anthropology and psychology of religion and comparative religion. Why did human ancestors everywhere adopt religious beliefs and customs? The presence and persistence of many religious features across the globe and time suggests that it is natural for humans to believe in the supernatural. In this new text, the authors explore both the biological and cultural dimensions of religion and the evolutionary origins of religious features.

Table of Contents:
Introduction Religion’s Family Resemblances Religion, Spirituality, and Religiosity Overview of Book Chapter 1: Anthropology and the Study of Religion Introduction to the Anthropological Study of Religion Western Perspectives on Religion The Development of Anthropological Approaches to Religion The Four-Field Approach of Anthropology Conclusion: The Biocultural Approach to the Study of Religiosity Chapter 2: Our World and How We Know It Introduction Science, Religion, and the Universe Mysticism as Science Conclusions: Comparing Science and Religion Chapter 3: Consciousness and Spiritual Experiences Opening vignette: Visionary Spiritual Experiences and the Origins of Major Religious Traditions Introduction What is Consciousness? The Biological Bases of Spiritual Consciousness: The Integrative Mode of Consciousness Origins of Religious Experiences: Natural Induction of the Integrative Mode of Consciousness Adaptive Aspects of the Integrative Mode of Consciousness Conclusion: Religious Experience as Personal Experience of Biology Appendix: Assessing Mystical Experiences/Hood’s Mysticism Scale Chapter 4: Animal Rituals and the Roots of Religiosity Introduction: Ritual in the Animal World What are Rituals? The Triune Brain and Ritual Behavior Animal Rituals The Evolution of Ritual Behaviors Conclusions: The Animal Roots of Human Ritual Activity Chapter 5: The Origins of Shamanism and the Flowering of Religiosity Introduction: Evidence for the Emergence of New Forms of Ritual What are Shamans? The Evolutionary Origins of Spiritual Experiences Psilocybin-Containing Mushrooms as Sources of Spiritual Experiences The Middle/Upper Paleolithic Transition and Human Cultural Evolution Human Cognitive Evolution: The Emergence of Specialized Intelligences “Complex Hunter-Gatherer Type Religions”: The Rise of Ancestor Cults and Priests Conclusions Chapter 6: Origins and Functions of Religious Healing Introduction: Religious Healing as a Cultural Universal The Co-Evolution of Healing and Religiosity Shamanism as a Foundation for Religious Healing Adaptations Religious Adaptations in Healing Processes Conclusions: Shamanic Healing and the Holistic Imperative Chapter 7: Religion and Cognition: How Religion Shapes How We Think Introduction: Religious Ideas and the Structure of the Universe Animism: The Belief in Spirit Beings Myth and the Universe Substantive Beliefs Conclusions: Spirit Concepts as Indigenous Psychologies Chapter 8: Religion and Emotions Introduction Bronislav Malinowski: The Emotional Adaptiveness of Magic and Religion Sigmund Freud and the Roles of the Unconscious in Religion Religion, Sex, and Gender How Religion Shapes Our Development Religion as an Evolutionary Byproduct? Attachment Theory and Religion Religious Conversion as Learning a Second Culture Conclusions Chapter 9: Religion and Society: How Religion Shapes Our Relations with Others Introduction The Evolutionary Origins of Human Social Organization and Religion Durkheim and the Social Symbolic Approaches to Religion Religion and Social Control The Social Origins of Conceptualizations of Deity and the Sacred Religion as a Biologically-Based Adaptive Social Mechanism Conclusions: Durkheim’s Legacy in Understanding Religion as a Social and Symbolic Phenomenon Chapter 10: Supernatural Evil Introduction: Supernatural Evil as a Religious Universal Anthropological Views of Sorcery and Witchcraft The Sorcerer/Witch as a Social Universal of Religion and Shamanism Witchcraft and Heresy in Europe Human Sacrifice Conclusions Chapter 11: Conclusions: Religion in Evolutionary Perspective Introduction The Conceptual Frameworks of Evolution Assessing the Evolutionary Status of Religious Features Why Must we Learn to Disagree? Conclusions: Universalist Perspectives References Index

About the Author :
Michael Winkelman, Ph.D. (University of California-Irvine), M.P.H. (University of Arizona) is an Associate Professor in the School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University. He served as President of the Anthropology of Consciousness section of the American Anthropological Association, as was the founding President of its Anthropology of Religion Section. His principal publications on shamanism include Shamans, Priests and Witches (1992) and Shamanism (2000).  He has also addressed the role of psychedelic medicines in shamanism in his co-edited Psychedelic Medicine. John Baker, Dr. Phil. (Universität Hamburg, Germany) is a Professor of Anthropology at Moorpark College. He has authored several papers on the constructive use of altered states of consciousness and on the history and ritual uses of psychoactive substances. He is presently serving as the President of the Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness.