Electrical Energy Efficiency – Technologies and Applications

The improvement of electrical energy efficiency is fast becoming one of the most essential areas of sustainability development, backed by political initiatives to control and reduce energy demand. Now a major topic in industry and the electrical engineering research community, engineers have started to focus on analysis, diagnosis and possible solutions. Owing to the complexity and cross-disciplinary nature of electrical energy efficiency issues, the optimal solution is often multi-faceted with a critical solutions evaluation component to ensure cost effectiveness. This single-source reference brings a practical focus to the subject of electrical energy efficiency, providing detailed theory and practical applications to enable engineers to find solutions for electroefficiency problems. It presents power supplier as well as electricity user perspectives and promotes routine implementation of good engineering practice. Key features include: * a comprehensive overview of the different technologies involved in electroefficiency, outlining monitoring and control concepts and practical design techniques used in industrial applications; * description of the current standards of electrical motors, with illustrative case studies showing how to achieve better design; * up-to-date information on standarization, technologies, economic realities and energy efficiency indicators (the main types and international results); * coverage on the quality and efficiency of distribution systems (the impact on distribution systems and loads, and the calculation of power losses in distribution lines and in power transformers). With invaluable practical advice, this book is suited to practicing electrical engineers, design engineers, installation designers, M&E designers, and economic engineers. It equips maintenance and energy managers, planners, and infrastructure managers with the necessary knowledge to properly evaluate the wealth of electrical energy efficiency solutions for large investments. This reference also provides interesting reading material for energy researchers, policy makers, consultants, postgraduate engineering students and final year undergraduate engineering students.

Table of Contents:
List of Contributors xi Preface xiii Foreword xv 1 Overview of Standardization of Energy Efficiency 1 Franco Bua and Angelo Baggini 1.1 Standardization 3 1.1.1 ISO 4 1.1.2 IEC 5 1.1.3 CEN and CENELEC 6 Further Readings 8 2 Cables and Lines 9 Paola Pezzini and Andreas Sumper 2.1 Theory of Heat Transfer 10 2.1.1 Conduction 10 2.1.2 Convection 10 2.1.3 Radiation 11 2.2 Current Rating of Cables Installed in Free Air 12 2.3 Economic Aspects 15 2.4 Calculation of the Current Rating: Total Costs 16 2.4.1 Evaluation of CJ 16 2.5 Determination of Economic Conductor Sizes 18 2.5.1 Economic Current Range for Each Conductor in a Series of Sizes 18 2.5.2 Economic Conductor Size for a Given Load 18 2.6 Summary 19 References 19 3 Power Transformers 21 Roman Targosz, Stefan Fassbinder and Angelo Baggini 3.1 Losses in Transformers 23 3.1.1 No-Load Losses 23 3.1.2 Load Losses 24 3.1.3 Auxiliary Losses 24 3.1.4 Extra Losses due to Harmonics, Unbalance and Reactive Power 25 3.2 Efficiency and Load Factor 30 3.3 Losses and Cooling System 31 3.4 Energy Efficiency Standards and Regulations 32 3.4.1 MEPS 37 3.4.2 Mandatory Labelling 37 3.4.3 Voluntary Programmes 37 3.5 Life Cycle Costing 39 3.5.1 Life Cycle Cost of Transformers 40 3.5.2 Detailed Considerations 44 3.6 Design, Material and Manufacturing 47 3.6.1 Core 47 3.6.2 Windings 52 3.6.3 Other Developments 54 3.7 Case Study Evaluation TOC of an Industrial Transformer 54 3.7.1 Method 55 3.7.2 Results 56 References 59 Further Readings 59 3.A Annex 60 3.A.1 Selected MEPS 60 4 Building Automation, Control and Management Systems 71 Angelo Baggini and Annalisa Marra 4.1 Automation Functions for Energy Savings 72 4.1.1 Temperature Control 72 4.1.2 Lighting 74 4.1.3 Drives and Motors 74 4.1.4 Technical Alarms and Management 75 4.1.5 Remote Control 76 4.2 Automation Systems 76 4.2.1 KNX Systems 77 4.2.2 Scada Systems 82 4.3 Automation Device Own Consumption 86 4.4 Basic Schemes 86 4.4.1 Heating and Cooling 86 4.4.2 Ventilation and Air Conditioning 95 4.4.3 Lighting 107 4.4.4 Sunscreens 109 4.4.5 Technical Building Management 110 4.4.6 Technical Installations in the Building 111 4.5 The Estimate of Building Energy Performance 113 4.5.1 European Standard EN 15232 113 4.5.2 Comparison of Methods: Detailed Calculations and BAC Factors 115 Further Readings 124 5 Power Quality Phenomena and Indicators 125 Andrei Cziker, Zbigniew Hanzelka and Ireana Wasiak 5.1 RMS Voltage Level 126 5.1.1 Sources 127 5.1.2 Effects on Energy Efficiency 128 5.1.3 Mitigation Methods 130 5.2 Voltage Fluctuations 132 5.2.1 Disturbance Description 132 5.2.2 Sources of Voltage Fluctuations 134 5.2.3 Effects and Cost 135 5.2.4 Mitigation Methods 138 5.3 Voltage and Current Unbalance 138 5.3.1 Disturbance Description 139 5.3.2 Sources 140 5.3.3 Effect and Cost 140 5.3.4 Mitigation Methods 143 5.4 Voltage and Current Distortion 145 5.4.1 Disturbance Description 145 5.4.2 Sources 146 5.4.3 Effects and Cost 147 5.4.4 Mitigation Methods 153 References 162 Further Readings 162 6 On Site Generation and Microgrids 165 Irena Wasiak and Zbigniew Hanzelka 6.1 Technologies of Distributed Energy Resources 166 6.1.1 Energy Sources 166 6.1.2 Energy Storage 170 6.2 Impact of DG on Power Losses in Distribution Networks 175 6.3 Microgrids 178 6.3.1 Concept 178 6.3.2 Energy Storage Applications 180 6.3.3 Management and Control 182 6.3.4 Power Quality and Reliability in Microgrids 184 References 186 Further Readings 187 7 Electric Motors 189 Joris Lemmens and Wim Deprez 7.1 Losses in Electric Motors 190 7.1.1 Power Balance and Energy Efficiency 191 7.1.2 Loss Components Classification 193 7.1.3 Influence Factors 195 7.2 Motor Efficiency Standards 199 7.2.1 Efficiency Classification Standards 199 7.2.2 Efficiency Measurement Standards 200 7.2.3 Future Standard for Variable Speed Drives 207 7.3 High Efficiency Motor Technology 208 7.3.1 Motor Materials 210 7.3.2 Motor Design 218 7.3.3 Motor Manufacturing 224 References 226 8 Lighting 229 Mircea Chindris and Antoni Sudria-Andreu 8.1 Energy and Lighting Systems 230 8.1.1 Energy Consumption in Lighting Systems 230 8.1.2 Energy Efficiency in Lighting Systems 231 8.2 Regulations 233 8.3 Technological Advances in Lighting Systems 234 8.3.1 Efficient Light Sources 234 8.3.2 Efficient Ballasts 239 8.3.3 Efficient Luminaries 241 8.4 Energy Efficiency in Indoor Lighting Systems 242 8.4.1 Policy Actions to Support Energy Efficiency 242 8.4.2 Retrofit or Redesign? 245 8.4.3 Lighting Controls 247 8.4.4 Daylighting 251 8.5 Energy Efficiency in Outdoor Lighting Systems 252 8.5.1 Efficient Lamps and Luminaires 253 8.5.2 Outdoor Lighting Controls 256 8.6 Maintenance of Lighting Systems 259 References 260 Further Readings 261 9 Electrical Drives and Power Electronics 263 Daniel Montesinos-Miracle, Joan Bergas-Jan'e and Edris Pouresmaeil 9.1 Control Methods for Induction Motors and PMSM 266 9.1.1 V/f Control 266 9.1.2 Vector Control 271 9.1.3 DTC 272 9.2 Energy Optimal Control Methods 274 9.2.1 Converter Losses 275 9.2.2 Motor Losses 276 9.2.3 Energy Optimal Control Strategies 276 9.3 Topology of the Variable Speed Drive 276 9.3.1 Input Stage 277 9.3.2 DC Bus 278 9.3.3 The Inverter 279 9.4 New Trends on Power Semiconductors 280 9.4.1 Modulation Techniques 281 9.4.2 Review of Different Modulation Methods 283 References 291 Further Readings 193 10 Industrial Heating Processes 295 Mircea Chindris and Andreas Sumper 10.1 General Aspects Regarding Electroheating in Industry 298 10.2 Main Electroheating Technologies 302 10.2.1 Resistance Heating 302 10.2.2 Infrared Heating 309 10.2.3 Induction Heating 314 10.2.4 Dielectric Heating 318 10.2.5 Arc Furnaces 325 10.3 Specific Aspects Regarding the Increase of Energy Efficiency in Industrial Heating Processes 326 10.3.1 Replacement of Traditional Heating Technologies 327 10.3.2 Selection of the Most Suitable Electrotechnology 329 10.3.3 Increasing the Efficiency of the Existing Electroheating Equipment 330 References 333 Further Readings 334 11 Heat, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) 335 Roberto Villafafila-Robles and Jaume Salom 11.1 Basic Concepts 336 11.2 Environmental Thermal Comfort 338 11.3 HVAC Systems 342 11.3.1 Energy Conversion 344 11.3.2 Energy Balance 346 11.3.3 Energy Efficiency 347 11.4 Energy Measures in HVAC Systems 348 11.4.1 Final Service 348 11.4.2 Passive Methods 348 11.4.3 Conversion Device 351 11.4.4 Energy Sources 353 References 354 Further Readings 355 12 Data Centres 357 Angelo Baggini and Franco Bua 12.1 Standards 357 12.2 Consumption Profile 358 12.2.1 Energy Performance Index 360 12.3 IT Infrastructure and Equipment 360 12.3.1 Blade Server 360 12.3.2 Storage 361 12.3.3 Network Equipment 361 12.3.4 Consolidation 362 12.3.5 Virtualization 362 12.3.6 Software 363 12.4 Facility Infrastructure 363 12.4.1 Electrical Infrastructure 363 12.4.2 HVAC Infrastructure 365 12.5 DG and CHP for Data Centres 368 12.6 Organizing for Energy Efficiency 369 Further Readings 370 13 Reactive Power Compensation 371 |Zbigniew Hanzelka, Waldemar Szpyra, Andrei Cziker and Krzysztof Piatek 13.1 Reactive Power Compensation in an Electric Utility Network 373 13.1.1 Economic Efficiency of Reactive Power Compensation 377 13.2 Reactive Power Compensation in an Industrial Network 380 13.2.1 Linear Loads 381 13.2.2 Group Compensation 383 13.2.3 Nonlinear Loads 387 13.3 Var Compensation 391 13.3.1 A Synchronous Condenser 391 13.3.2 Capacitor Banks 392 13.3.3 Power Electronic Compensators/Stabilizers 393 References 398 Further Readings 398 Index 399