Attribute-based Encryption (ABE): Foundations and Applications within Blockchain and Cloud Environments

Attribute-based Encryption (ABE) Enables readers to understand applications of attribute-based encryption schemes in cloud computing with the support of blockchain technology With a focus on blockchain technology, Attribute-based Encryption (ABE) provides insight into the application of attribute-based encryption (ABE) schemes, discussing types of blockchains, fundamentals of blockchain, and how blockchains are constructed. Comprised of 16 chapters, the text provides an overview of the components that go into creating a dual ABE system of encryption proofs within the following: composite bilinear groups, dual pairing vector space framework, matrix pairing framework, framework for matrix pairing, and the application of cryptographic scheme on blockchain. The team of authors discuss the basic construction components of ABE and share the security models, including the selective and semi- adaptive security models, applying these to either prime order or composite order groups. The book also discusses the tools used for converting a composite order ABE scheme to prime order and an adaptive secure ABE scheme based on prime order. In Attribute-based Encryption (ABE), readers can expect to find information on: Mathematical background of ABE, covering group and cyclic group, elliptic curves, curve selection, supersingular curves, ordinary curves, and weil and tate pairing Basic construction components of ABE, covering access structure, monotone Boolean formula, linear secret-sharing scheme, and ordered binary decision diagram Tools for converting composite order ABE schemes to prime order, covering security assumptions and conversion based on vectors for preliminaries, scheme construction, and security proof technique Foundations of blockchain technology, covering blocks, miners, hash functions, and public key cryptography Attribute-based Encryption (ABE) is an essential resource for professionals working in the field of design and cybersecurity who wish to understand how to use blockchain and the ABE scheme to provide fine-grained access control in outsourced data on third-party cloud servers.

Table of Contents:
About the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Part I Attribute-Based Encryption (ABE) 1 1 Foundation of Attribute-Based Encryption 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.1 Symmetric Encryption 4 1.1.2 Asymmetric Key Encryption 4 1.1.3 Identity-Based Encryption 5 1.2 Functional Encryption 7 1.2.1 Applications of Attribute-Based Encryption 8 1.2.2 Problems with Attribute-Based Encryption 9 1.2.3 A Brief History of Security Proof of Functional Encryption 9 1.2.4 Dual System of Encryption 10 1.2.5 Summary 11 References 12 2 Mathematical Background 15 2.1 Group Theory 15 2.1.1 Law of Composition 15 2.1.2 Groups 15 2.1.3 Subgroups 16 2.1.4 Homomorphisms 17 2.1.5 Cyclic Group 17 2.2 Ring Theory 20 2.2.1 Ideals and Quotient Rings 21 2.2.2 Euler’s Totient Function 22 2.2.3 Polynomial Rings 22 2.2.4 Irreducible and Monic Polynomials 22 2.2.5 Field Theory 23 2.2.5.1 Quotient Field 24 2.2.6 Field Characteristic 24 2.2.7 Algebraic Extension Fields 24 2.3 Elliptic Curves 24 2.3.1 Plane Curve 24 2.3.2 Group Operations on Elliptic Curves 26 2.3.2.1 Point Addition 26 2.3.2.2 Point Doubling 27 2.4 Divisors and Bilinear Map 28 2.4.1 Divisors 28 2.4.2 The degree and Support of d 29 2.4.3 The Divisor of a Function f on E 29 2.4.4 Equivalence of Divisors 30 2.4.5 Bilinear Map 31 2.4.6 Weil Pairing 31 2.4.7 Miller’s Algorithm 32 2.4.8 The Tate Pairing 34 2.5 Summary 36 References 36 3 Attribute-Based Encryption 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Basic Components of ABE Construction 39 3.2.1 Secret-Sharing Schemes 39 3.2.2 Polynomial Interpolation 41 3.2.2.1 Polynomials Over the Reals 41 3.2.2.2 Polynomials Modulus P 44 3.2.3 Shamir Secret Sharing 45 3.2.4 Verifiable Secret Sharing (VSS) 47 3.2.4.1 Algorithm for Converting Access Structure Into LSSS Matrix 47 3.2.4.2 Access Structure Example 48 3.2.4.3 Algorithms in Attribute-Based Encryption 49 3.2.5 Properties of Attribute-Based Encryption 51 3.2.6 Prime Order Group 51 3.3 Cryptographic Hard Assumptions 51 3.3.1 Composite Order Bilinear Groups 54 3.3.2 Complexity Assumptions 55 3.4 Provable Security 56 3.5 Security Notions 57 3.5.1 Summary 57 References 58 4 Data Access Control 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.1.1 Coarse-Grained 62 4.1.2 Fine-Grained Access Control 63 4.1.3 Importance of Fine-Grained Access Control 64 4.2 Concerns About Cloud-Based Access Control that Are Trustworthy 65 4.2.1 Encryption Access Control 65 4.2.2 Requirements for Encryption-Based Access Control 67 4.3 Summary 67 References 68 5 Selective Secure ABE Schemes Based on Prime Order Group 69 5.1 Introduction 69 5.1.1 Selective Security Model for KP-ABE 70 5.1.2 Selective Security Model for CP-ABE 70 5.1.3 ABE Schemes 71 5.2 The KP-ABE Scheme 71 5.2.1 Concrete Scheme Construction 71 5.2.2 Security Proof 73 5.3 The CP-ABE Scheme 74 5.3.1 Concrete Scheme Construction 74 5.3.2 Security Proof 76 5.4 Summary 77 References 77 6 Fully Secure ABE Schemes Based on Composite and Prime Order Groups 79 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 A Fully Secure CP-ABE from Composite Order Group 81 6.2.1 CP-ABE Construction 82 6.2.2 Adaptive Security Proof 83 6.2.2.1 Description of Hybrids 83 6.2.3 Security Proof 84 6.3 A Fully Secure KP-ABE Scheme Based on Dual Vector Space 84 6.3.1 KP-ABE Construction 85 6.3.2 Adaptive Security 87 6.3.3 Security Proof 88 6.4 KP-ABE Scheme Based on Matrix 89 6.4.1 The Scheme 89 6.4.2 Adaptive Security 90 6.4.3 Security Proof 91 6.5 Summary 91 References 92 Part II Concepts of Blockchain Technology 95 7 Blockchain Technology 97 7.1 Introduction 97 7.1.1 History 97 7.1.2 Preliminary Concepts of Blockchain Technology 98 7.1.3 Characteristics of Blockchain 100 7.1.4 Evolution and Types of Blockchain 104 7.1.4.1 The Blockchain 1.0 104 7.1.4.2 Blockchain 2.0 104 7.1.4.3 Blockchain 3.0 105 7.1.5 Permissionless vs Permissioned Blockchains 105 7.1.6 Types of Blockchain 105 7.2 Architecture of Blockchain 106 7.2.1 Architecture of Blockchain 1.0 (Cryptocurrencies) 106 7.2.2 Block 106 7.2.3 Node 107 7.2.4 Types of Blockchain Nodes 107 7.2.5 Consensus 110 7.3 Architecture of Blockchain 2.0 (Smart Contracts) 110 7.3.1 Introduction to Smart Contracts 110 7.3.2 How Smart Contracts Work 111 7.3.3 Example of Smart Contract 111 7.3.4 Uses of Smart Contracts 111 7.3.5 Advantages of Smart Contracts 112 7.3.6 Limitations of Smart Contracts 112 7.4 Architecture of Blockchain 3.0 (Blockchain Applications) 113 7.4.1 Consensus Mechanism 113 7.5 Blockchain 4.0 118 7.5.1 Blockchain 4.0 Applications 119 7.5.2 Metaverse 119 7.5.3 Industrial Revolution 4.0 120 7.5.4 Blockchain 4.0 for Businesses 120 References 120 8 Scaling-Out Blockchains with Sharding 125 8.1 Introduction 125 8.1.1 Scalability Trilemma 126 8.1.2 Nakamoto-Based – Monoxide – Chu-ko-nu Mining 128 8.1.3 Elastico 128 8.1.4 OmniLedger 129 8.1.5 Rapid Chain 130 8.1.6 Learnings 131 8.1.7 General Improvements 132 8.1.7.1 Reducing Transaction Latency 133 8.1.7.2 Inter-Communication Protocol 133 8.1.7.3 Shards Ledger Pruning 134 8.1.7.4 Decentralized Bootstrapping 134 8.1.7.5 Securing the Epoch Reconfiguration 134 8.1.7.6 Sharded Smart Contract 135 8.1.7.7 Replay Attacks and Defenses Against Cross-Shard Protocols 135 8.2 Off-Chain Solution: Layer 2 Solutions 136 8.2.1 State Channels 136 8.2.2 Side Chains of the Plasma 138 8.2.3 Problems with Data Accessibility 139 8.3 Rollups 139 8.3.1 Rollups Based on Zero Knowledge 140 8.3.2 Proofs of Zero-Knowledge 140 8.3.3 Protocol Schnorr 142 8.3.4 Protocol Pedersen 143 8.3.5 zk-SNARKs 144 8.4 Summary 144 References 145 Part III Applying Blockchain with Real-Time Technologies 147 9 Blockchain Technology for Supply Management 149 9.1 Introduction 149 9.1.1 System Design 153 9.1.2 System Architecture 153 9.1.3 Entities of the System 154 9.1.3.1 Users 154 9.1.4 Smart Contract Control 157 9.1.5 Blockchain Network 157 9.1.5.1 Processing Nodes 157 9.1.5.2 System Application Layer 158 9.1.5.3 Storage Infrastructure 158 9.1.6 System Decryption 158 9.1.7 Blocks 159 9.1.7.1 Block Design 160 9.2 System Flow 163 9.2.1 System Advantages 163 9.2.2 Conclusion 164 References 165 10 Satellite Communication 167 10.1 Introduction 167 10.1.1 Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 169 10.1.2 Interstellar Link Length 171 10.1.3 Model of Satellite Motion 171 10.1.4 Edge Computing Technologies 172 10.2 Analysis of Edge Computing Requirements of Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 175 10.2.1 Design of Edge Computing Architecture for Low-Orbit Constellation Communication Networks 175 10.2.2 Satellite 176 10.2.3 System Entities 180 10.2.4 System Process Flow 180 10.2.5 Security Properties 183 10.3 Summary 183 References 183 11 Foundation of Information-Centric Communication 185 11.1 Introduction 185 11.2 Information-Centric Communication 185 11.3 Name-Based Routing of Content 187 11.4 Benefits of Using ICN 187 11.5 Cost-Efficient and Scalable Distribution of Content Design Principles 189 11.6 ICN Design Challenges 190 11.6.1 Content Naming 190 11.6.2 Caching of Content 191 11.6.3 Data Integrity 192 11.6.4 Resolution System’s Scalability and Name-Based Routing 192 References 193 12 Security Overall in Information-Centric Networks 195 12.1 Introduction 195 12.2 Content-Centric Network (CCN) Architecture 195 12.3 Naming System Design 197 12.4 Secure Naming Scheme for Information-Centric Networks 198 12.5 Data Transmission – Content Delivery 198 12.6 Traffic Load in Network Caching 199 12.6.1 Store Unique Naming of Content in Caches 200 12.6.2 Storage Limitation in Caching Space Devices 201 12.7 Content’s Freshness Detection 201 12.8 ICN Security 201 12.9 Attacks in ICN Architectures 202 12.10 ICN Attributes to Ensure Security Threats 204 12.11 Traffic Analysis and Prediction 204 12.12 Some Key Problem Statements 205 12.13 Blockchain-Based ICN Scheme Improvement 206 12.13.1 Protection Against DDos 206 12.14 A Secured Information-Centric Network Based on Blockchain 206 12.14.1 Blockchain-Based ICN Structure 207 12.14.1.1 Data Integrity 207 12.15 Attribute-Based Encryption Scheme for the Information-Centric Network 208 12.15.1 Applying Ciphertext-Policy ABE (CP-ABE) Scheme in ICN 209 12.15.2 System Design of CP-ABE Scheme in ICN 210 References 212 13 Subscriber Data Management System Based on Blockchain 215 13.1 Introduction 215 13.1.1 Motivation 216 13.1.2 Problem Statement 216 13.1.3 Contributions 216 13.2 Literature Review 217 13.3 System Design Description 217 13.3.1 Assumptions 217 13.3.2 Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption (CP-ABE) 218 13.3.3 CP-ABE Construction 218 13.3.4 System Components 219 13.3.4.1 Data Subscribers (DSs) 219 13.3.4.2 Data Providers (DPs) 220 13.3.4.3 Key Generation and Distribution Center (KGDC) 220 13.3.4.4 IPFS Distributed Storage 220 13.3.4.5 Blockchain Platform 220 13.3.5 Process Description 222 13.3.5.1 Subscriber Registration 224 13.3.5.2 Subscriber Data Storage 224 13.3.5.3 Subscriber Data Request 224 13.3.6 Benefits of Proposed Design 225 13.3.7 Security Requirements 226 13.4 Summary 227 References 227 14 A Secure Data-Sharing Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding System 229 14.1 Introduction 229 14.2 Literature Review 231 14.2.1 Present-Day Centralized Crowdfunding 231 14.2.2 Crowdfunding Models 233 14.2.3 Problems of Traditional Crowdfunding 234 14.2.4 Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding 234 14.2.5 Advantages of Blockchain-Based Crowdfunding 235 14.3 Proposed System 236 14.3.1 System Model 236 14.3.1.1 Key Components 237 14.3.2 System Framework Overview 238 14.3.2.1 Application Layer 239 14.3.2.2 Blockchain Layer 239 14.3.2.3 Data Storage Layer 239 14.3.3 System Assumptions and Threat Model 240 14.3.4 Process Description 240 14.3.5 Smart Contract Interactions 241 14.3.5.1 User Registration Contract (URC) 241 14.3.5.2 User Verification Contract (UVC) 241 14.3.5.3 Project Data Access Contract (PDAC) 241 14.3.6 Concrete Implementation 241 14.3.6.1 User Register 242 14.3.6.2 Data Encrypt 242 14.3.6.3 Data Search 242 14.3.6.4 Fine-Grained Access Authorization 242 14.3.6.5 Data Decrypt 243 14.3.6.6 Transaction Confirmation 243 14.3.7 Security Requirements 243 14.3.7.1 Fine-Grained Access Control 243 14.3.7.2 Key Counterfeiting 243 14.3.7.3 Data Integrity 244 14.4 Summary 244 References 244 Index 247