Materials for Hydrogen Production, Conversion, and Storage

MATERIALS FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION, CONVERSION, AND STORAGE Edited by one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and his team, this book provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogen production, conversion, and storage, offering the scientific literature a comprehensive coverage of this important fuel. Continually growing environmental concerns are driving every, or almost every, country on the planet towards cleaner and greener energy production. This ultimately leaves no option other than using hydrogen as a fuel that has almost no adverse environmental impact. But hydrogen poses several hazards in terms of human safety as its mixture of air is prone to potential detonations and fires. In addition, the permeability of cryogenic storage can induce frostbite as it leaks through metal pipes. In short, there are many challenges at every step to strive for emission-free fuel. In addition to these challenges, there are many emerging technologies in this area. For example, as the density of hydrogen is very low, efficient methods are being developed and engineered to store it in small volumes. This groundbreaking new volume describes the production of hydrogen from various sources along with the protagonist materials involved. Further, the extensive and novel materials involved in conversion technologies are discussed. Also covered here are the details of the storage materials of hydrogen for both physical and chemical systems. Both renewal and non-renewal sources are examined as feedstocks for the production of hydrogen. The non-renewal feedstocks, mainly petroleum, are the major contributor to date but there is a future perspective in a renewal source comprising mainly of water splitting via electrolysis, radiolysis, thermolysis, photocatalytic water splitting, and biohydrogen routes. Whether for the student, veteran engineer, new hire, or other industry professionals, this is a must-have for any library.

Table of Contents:
Preface xxi 1 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion 1 Zuzanna Bielan and Katarzyna Siuzdak 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes Utilizing Transition Metal Oxides 3 1.2.1 Photocatalysis 3 1.2.2 Photoelectrocatalysis 5 1.2.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting 6 1.3 Transition Metal Oxides in Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Processes 7 1.3.1 Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis 7 1.3.1.1 TiO 2 8 1.3.1.2 α-Fe 2 O 3 16 1.3.1.3 CuO/Cu 2 O 20 1.3.2 Thermochemical Water Splitting 23 1.3.2.1 Fe 3 O 4 /FeO Redox Pair 24 1.3.2.2 CeO 2 /Ce 2 O 3 and CeO/CeO 2-δ Redox Pairs 25 1.3.2.3 ZnO/Zn Redox Pair 27 1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 28 References 29 2 Catalytic Conversion Involving Hydrogen from Lignin 41 Satabdi Misra and Atul Kumar Varma List of Abbreviations 41 2.1 Introduction 42 2.1.1 Background of Bio-Refinery and Lignin 42 2.1.2 Lignin as an Alternate Source of Energy 44 2.1.3 Lignin Isolation Process 45 2.2 Catalytic Conversion of Lignin 45 2.2.1 Lignin Reductive Depolymerization into Aromatic Monomers 47 2.2.2 Catalytic Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin 48 2.2.3 Hydrodeoxydation (HDO) of Lignin-Derived-Bio-Oil 51 Summary and Outlook 52 References 53 3 Solar–Hydrogen Coupling Hybrid Systems for Green Energy 65 Bilge Coşkuner Filiz, Esra Balkanli Unlu, Hülya Civelek Yörüklü, Meltem Karaismailoglu Elibol, Yağmur Akar, Ali Turgay San, Halit Eren Figen and Aysel Kantürk Figen 3.1 Concept of Green Sources and Green Storage 66 3.2 Coupling of Green to Green 67 3.3 Solar Energy–Hydrogen System 67 3.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production 68 3.3.1.1 PEC Materials 70 3.3.1.2 Photoelectrochemical Systems 73 3.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogen Production 74 3.3.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC) 75 3.3.2.2 Alkaline Electrolysis Cell (AEC) 76 3.3.2.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC) 77 3.3.3 Fuel Cell 78 3.3.4 Photovoltaic 79 3.4 Thermochemical Systems 80 3.5 Photobiological Hydrogen Production 82 3.6 Conclusion 84 References 85 4 Green Sources to Green Storage on Solar–Hydrogen Coupling 97 A. Mohan Kumar, R. Rajasekar, P. Sathish Kumar, S. Santhosh and B. Premkumar 4.1 Introduction 98 4.1.1 Hybrid System 99 4.2 Concentrated Solar Thermal H 2 Production 101 4.3 Thermochemical Aqua Splitting Technology for Solar–H 2 Generation 103 4.4 Solar to Hydrogen Through Decarbonization of Fossil Fuels 105 4.4.1 Solar Cracking 106 4.5 Solar Thermal-Based Hydrogen Generation Through Electrolysis 107 4.6 Photovoltaics-Based Hydrogen Production 107 4.7 Conclusion 109 References 110 5 Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 115 R. Shilpa, K. S. Sibi, S. R. Sarath Kumar, R. K. Pai and R.B. Rakhi 5.1 Introduction 116 5.2 Parameters to Evaluate Efficient HER Catalysts 117 5.2.1 Overpotential (o.p) 117 5.2.2 Tafel Plot 118 5.2.3 Stability 119 5.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency and Turnover Frequency 119 5.2.5 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE) 120 5.3 Categories of HER Catalysts 121 5.3.1 Noble Metal-Based Catalysts 121 5.3.2 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts 125 5.3.3 Metal-Free 2D Nanomaterials 126 5.3.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides 129 5.3.5 Transition Metal Oxides and Hydroxides 130 5.3.6 Transition Metal Phosphides 132 5.3.7 MXenes (Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides) 132 Conclusion 134 References 134 6 Recent Progress on Metal Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution 147 Tejaswi Jella and Ravi Arukula 6.1 Introduction 148 6.1.1 Type of Water Electrolysis Technologies 148 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Electrolysis (AE) 149 6.1.1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis (peme) 149 6.1.1.3 Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOE) 149 6.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 149 6.2.1 Performance Evaluation of Catalyst 151 6.3 Various Electrocatalysts for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (her) 153 6.3.1 Noble Metal Catalysts for HER 153 6.3.1.1 Platinum-Based Catalysts 153 6.3.1.2 Palladium Based Catalysts 155 6.3.1.3 Ruthenium Based Catalysts 157 6.3.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts 158 6.3.2.1 Transition Metal Phosphides (TMP) 158 6.3.2.2 Transition Metal Chalcogenides 162 6.3.2.3 Transition Metal Carbides (TMC) 163 6.4 Conclusion and Future Aspects 164 References 165 7 Dark Fermentation and Principal Routes to Produce Hydrogen 181 Luana C. Grangeiro, Bruna S. de Mello, Brenda C. G. Rodrigues, Caroline Varella Rodrigues, Danieli Fernanda Canaver Marin, Romario Pereira de Carvalho Junior, Lorena Oliveira Pires, Sandra Imaculada Maintinguer, Arnaldo Sarti and Kelly J. Dussán 7.1 Introduction 182 7.2 Biohydrogen Production from Organic Waste 183 7.2.1 Crude Glycerol 186 7.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation of Crude Glycerol to Biohydrogen and Bio Products 187 7.2.2 Dairy Waste 189 7.2.2.1 Dark Fermentation of Dairy Waste to Biohydrogen and Bioproducts 190 7.2.3 Fruit Waste 193 7.2.3.1 Dark Fermentation of Fruit Waste to Hydrogen and Bioproducts 194 7.3 Anaerobic Systems 198 7.3.1 Continuous Multiple Tube Reactor 206 7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 209 Acknowledgements 210 References 210 8 Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production 225 Zaib Ullah Khan, Mabkhoot Alsaiari, Muhammad Ashfaq Ahmed, Nawshad Muhammad, Muhammad Tariq, Abdur Rahim and Abdul Niaz 8.1 Introduction 226 8.2 Water Splitting and Their Products 229 8.3 Different Methods Used for Water Splitting 229 8.3.1 Setup for Water Splitting Systems at a Basic Level 229 8.3.2 Photocatalysis 230 8.3.3 Electrolysis 232 8.4 Principles of PEC and Photocatalytic H 2 Generation 232 8.5 Electrochemical Process for Water Splitting Application 233 8.5.1 Water Splitting Through Electrochemistry 233 8.6 Different Materials Used in Water Splitting 233 8.6.1 Water Oxidation (OER) Materials 233 8.6.2 Developing Materials for Hydrogen Synthesis 235 8.6.3 Material Stability for Water Splitting 235 8.7 Mechanism of Electrochemical Catalysis in Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production 235 8.7.1 Electrochemical Water Splitting with Cheap Metal-Based Catalysts 236 8.7.2 Catalysts with Only One Atom 236 8.7.3 Electrochemical Water Splitting Using Low-Cost Metal-Free Catalysts 237 8.8 Water Splitting and Hydrogen Production Materials Used in Electrochemical Catalysis 238 8.8.1 Metal and Alloys 238 8.8.2 Metal Oxides/Hydroxides and Chalogenides 239 8.8.3 Metal Carbides, Borides, Nitrides, and Phosphides 239 8.9 Uses of Hydrogen Produced from Water Splitting 240 8.9.1 Water Splitting Generates Hydrogen Energy 240 8.9.2 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting 241 8.9.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting 241 8.9.4 Biological Water Splitting 241 8.9.5 Fermentation 241 8.9.6 Biomass and Waste Conversions 242 8.9.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting 242 8.9.8 Renewable Electrolysis 242 8.9.9 Hydrogen Dispenser Hose Reliability 242 8.10 Conclusion 243 References 243 9 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies Related to Biohydrogen Production 249 Mohd Nur Ikhmal Salehmin, Ibdal Satar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed 9.1 Introduction 249 9.2 Limitation and Mitigation Approaches of Biohydrogen Production 252 9.2.1 Physical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 252 9.2.1.1 Operating Temperature Issue and Its Control 252 9.2.1.2 Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Optimization 252 9.2.1.3 High Hydrogen Partial Pressure – Implication and Overcoming the Issue 253 9.2.1.4 Membrane Fouling Issues and Solutions 254 9.2.2 Biological Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 256 9.2.2.1 Start-Up Issue and Improvement Through Bioaugmentation 256 9.2.2.2 Biomass Washout Issue and Solution Through Cell Immobilization 256 9.2.3 Chemical Issues and Their Mitigation Approaches 257 9.2.3.1 pH Variation and Its Regulation 257 9.2.3.2 Limiting Nutrient Loading and Optimization 257 9.2.3.3 Inhibitor Secretion and Its Control 258 9.2.3.4 Byproduct Formation and Its Exploitation 260 9.2.4 Economic Issues and Ways to Optimize Cost 260 9.3 Conclusion and Future Direction 265 Acknowledgements 266 References 266 10 Continuous Production of Clean Hydrogen from Wastewater by Microbial Usage 277 P. Satishkumar, Arun M. Isloor and Ramin Farnood 10.1 Introduction 278 10.2 Wastewater for Biohydrogen Production 279 10.3 Photofermentation 281 10.3.1 Continuous Photofermentation 283 10.3.2 Factors Affecting Photofermentation Hydrogen Production 286 10.3.2.1 Inoculum Condition and Substrate Concentration 286 10.3.2.2 Carbon and Nitrogen Source 287 10.3.2.3 Temperature 288 10.3.2.4 pH 288 10.3.2.5 Light Intensity 288 10.3.2.6 Immobilization 290 10.4 Dark Fermentation 291 10.4.1 Continuous Dark Fermentation 292 10.4.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Production in Continuous Dark Fermentation 296 10.4.2.1 Start-Up Time 296 10.4.2.2 Organic Loading Rate 296 10.4.2.3 Hydraulic Retention Time 297 10.4.2.4 Temperature 301 10.4.2.5 pH 302 10.4.2.6 Immobilization 302 10.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 304 10.5.1 Mechanism of Microbial Electrolysis Cell 304 10.5.2 Wastewater Treatment and Hydrogen Production 305 10.5.3 Factors Affecting Microbial Electrolysis Cell Performance 308 10.5.3.1 Inoculum 308 10.5.3.2 pH 308 10.5.3.3 Temperature 308 10.5.3.4 Hydraulic Retention Time 308 10.5.3.5 Applied Voltage 310 10.6 Conclusions 310 References 311 11 Conversion Techniques for Hydrogen Production and Recovery Using Membrane Separation 319 Nor Azureen Mohamad Nor, Nur Shamimie Nadzwin Hasnan, Nurul Atikah Nordin, Nornastasha Azida Anuar, Muhamad Firdaus Abdul Sukur and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed 11.1 Introduction 320 11.2 Conversion Technique for Hydrogen Production 321 11.2.1 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation via Particulate System 321 11.2.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC) 324 11.2.3 Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Cell (PV-PEC) 325 11.2.4 Electrolysis 327 11.3 Hydrogen Recovery Using Membrane Separation (h 2 /o 2 Membrane Separation) 329 11.3.1 Polymeric Membranes 330 11.3.2 Porous Membranes 331 11.3.3 Dense Metal Membranes 332 11.3.4 Ion-Conductive Membranes 333 11.4 Conclusion 335 Acknowledgements 336 References 336 12 Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Systems 343 Santanu Ghosh and Atul Kumar Varma Abbreviations 344 12.1 Introduction 345 12.2 Hydrogen – A Green Fuel and an Energy Carrier 347 12.3 Production of Hydrogen 348 12.3.1 Fossil Fuel-Based 348 12.3.2 Non-Fossil Fuel-Based 349 12.4 Geothermal Energy 353 12.4.1 Introductory View 353 12.4.2 Types and Occurrences 354 12.5 Hydrogen Production From Geothermal Energy 355 12.5.1 Hydrogen Production Systems 355 12.5.2 Working Fluids 369 12.5.3 Assimilation of Solar and Geothermal Energy 370 12.5.4 Chlor-Alkali Cell and Abatement of Mercury and Hydrogen Sulfide (AMIS) Unit 372 12.5.5 Hydrogen Liquefaction 374 12.5.6 Hydrogen Storage 375 12.6 Economics of Hydrogen Production 377 12.6.1 A General Overview 377 12.6.2 Economy of Hydrogen Yield Using Geothermal Energy 379 12.7 Environmental Impressions of Geothermal Energy-Driven Hydrogen Yield 381 12.8 Conclusions 382 References 384 13 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis by Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Effective Hydrogen Production 397 Kiran Kumar B., B. Venkateswar Rao, Sashivinay Kumar Gaddam, Ravi Arukula and Vishnu Shanker 13.1 Introduction 398 13.1.1 Typical Heterogeneous Photocatalysis Mechanism 399 13.1.2 Necessity of the Photocatalytic Water Splitting 400 13.2 g-C 3 N 4 -Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 401 13.2.1 Influence of the g-C 3 N 4 Morphology on Photocatalytic Water Splitting 402 13.2.1a g-C 3 N 4 Thin Nanosheets-Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 402 13.2.1b Porous g-C 3 N 4 -Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 404 13.2.1c Crystalline g-C 3 N 4 -Based Photocatalytic Water Splitting 405 13.2.2 Metal Doped Photocatalytic Water Splitting 406 13.2.3 Semiconductor/g-C 3 N 4 Heterojunction for Photocatalytic Water Splitting 407 13.3 Future Remarks and Conclusion 408 References 409 14 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-CN) for Sustainable Hydrogen Production 417 Zaib Ullah Khan, Mabkhoot Alsaiari, Saleh Alsayari, Nawshad Muhmmad and Abdur Rahim 14.1 Introduction 418 14.2 Various Methods for Hydrogen Production 421 14.3 Production of Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels 422 14.3.1 Steam Reforming 422 14.3.2 Gasification 422 14.4 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Energy 422 14.4.1 Water Splitting by Thermochemistry 422 14.5 Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies 423 14.5.1 Electrolysis 423 14.5.2 Photovoltaic Solar 423 14.5.3 Wind Method for Producing Hydrogen 423 14.5.4 Biomass Gasification Use for Hydrogen Production 424 14.5.5 Agricultural or Food-Processing Waste that Contains Starch and Cellulose 424 14.6 Preparation of g-C 3 N 4 Materials 425 14.6.1 Sol-Gel Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride 426 14.6.2 Hard and Soft-Template Method 426 14.6.3 Template-Free Method for Making Graphitic Carbon Nitride 428 14.7 Properties of g-C 3 N 4 Materials 429 14.7.1 Stability 429 14.7.1.1 Thermal Stability 429 14.7.1.2 Chemical Stability 430 14.7.1.3 Electrochemical Properties 430 14.8 The Advantages of Sustainable Hydrogen Production and Their Applications 430 14.8.1 Hydrogen Applications 430 14.9 Hydro Processing in Petroleum Refineries and Their Usage 431 14.9.1 Hydrocracking 431 14.9.2 Hydrofining 431 14.9.3 Ammonia Synthesis 432 14.9.4 Synthesis of Methanol 433 14.9.5 Electricity Generation from Hydrogen 433 14.9.6 Applications for Green Hydrogen 434 14.9.7 Replacing Existing Hydrogen 434 14.9.8 Heating 435 14.9.9 Energy Storage 435 14.9.10 Alternative Fuels 435 14.9.11 Fuel-Cell Vehicles 436 14.10 Conclusion 436 References 436 15 Hydrogen Production from Anaerobic Digestion 441 Muhammad Farhan Hil Me, Mohd Nur Ikhmal Salehmin, Hau Seung Jeremy Wong and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed 15.1 Introduction 441 15.2 Basic Overview of Anaerobic Digestion 443 15.3 How to Obtain Hydrogen from Anaerobic Digestion 445 15.3.1 Single-Stage Reactor 445 15.3.2 Two-Stage Reactor 445 15.3.3 Feedstock and Resulting Hydrogen 446 15.4 Challenges and Mitigation Strategies in Biohydrogen Production 447 15.4.1 Combating Microbial Competition 447 15.4.2 Enhancing Biohydrogen Production Yield by Technical and Operational Adjustments 448 15.4.3 Minimizing Inhibition by Byproducts from Pretreatments 450 15.4.4 Minimizing Inhibition by Metal Ions 451 15.4.5 Minimizing In-Process Inhibition 452 15.4.5.1 Volatile Fatty Acids and Alcohols 452 15.4.5.2 Ammonia 453 15.4.5.3 Hydrogen 453 15.5 Practicality of Technologies at Industrial Scale 453 15.6 Conclusion 456 Acknowledgements 456 References 456 16 Impact of Treatment Strategies on Biohydrogen Production from Waste-Activated Sludge Fermentation 465 Rajeswari M. Kulkarni, Dhanyashree J.K., Esha Varma, Sirivibha S.P. and Shantha M.P. 16.1 Introduction 466 16.2 Methods of Production of Hydrogen Using WAS 467 16.2.1 Dark Fermentation 468 16.2.2 Photofermentation 469 16.2.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 470 16.3 Physical Treatment Methods 471 16.4 Chemical Treatment Methods 486 16.5 Conclusions 504 References 505 17 Microbial Production of Biohydrogen (BioH 2) from Waste-Activated Sludge: Processes, Challenges, and Future Approaches 511 Abhispa Bora, T. Angelin Swetha, K. Mohanrasu, G. Sivaprakash, P. Balaji and A. Arun 17.1 Introduction 512 17.2 Hydrogen and Waste-Activated Sludge 513 17.2.1 Hydrogen 513 17.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge 514 17.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Production 514 17.3.1 H 2 Production by Dark Fermentation Process 515 17.3.2 H 2 Production by Photofermentation Process 516 17.3.3 Using Microbial Electrolysis Cell 518 17.4 H 2 Production by Microalgae Using Waste 520 17.4.1 Bottlenecks of H 2 Production 520 17.4.2 Key Factors Influencing H 2 Production 521 17.5 Recent Endeavors to Enhance H 2 Production 522 17.5.1 Recent Advancements in Dark Fermentation 522 17.5.2 Recent Advances in Photofermentation 526 17.5.3 Recent Advances in Microbial Electrolysis Cell 527 17.6 Future Approaches 528 17.7 Conclusion 528 References 529 18 Perovskite Materials for Hydrogen Production 539 Surawut Chuangchote and Kamonchanok Roongraung 18.1 Current Problems of Technology for Hydrogen Production 540 18.2 Principle of Perovskite Materials 540 18.2.1 Oxide Perovskite 542 18.2.1.1 Titanate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATiO 3) 542 18.2.1.2 Tantalate-Based Oxide Perovskite (ATaO 3) 544 18.2.1.3 Niobate-Based Oxide Perovskite 545 18.2.2 Halide Perovskite 547 18.2.2.1 Conventional Halide Perovskite 547 18.2.2.2 Lead-Free Halide Perovskites 548 18.3 Synthesis Process for Perovskite Materials 549 18.3.1 Microwaves 550 18.3.2 Sol-Gel 550 18.3.3 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal 551 18.3.4 Precipitation 553 18.3.5 Hot-Injection 553 18.4 Hydrogen Production from Solar Water Splitting 554 18.4.1 Photocatalytic System 555 18.4.2 Photoelectrochemical System 556 18.4.3 Photovoltaic–Electrocatalytic System 559 18.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 562 References 563 19 Progress on Ni-Based as Co-Catalysts for Water Splitting 575 Arti Maurya, Kartick Chandra Majhi and Mahendra Yadav 19.1 Introduction 576 19.1.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of Hydrogen Production 577 19.1.2 Different Processes for the Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution by Water Splitting 578 19.1.3 Photocatalyst 578 19.1.3.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis 578 19.1.3.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 579 19.2 Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation System 581 19.2.1 Electron Donor and Electrolyte/Sacrificial Reagent 581 19.2.2 Loading of Co-Catalyst 581 19.2.3 Photocatalytic Activity Efficiency 583 19.3 Semiconductor Materials 584 19.3.1 Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites 584 19.3.2 Non-Oxide-Based Semiconductor and Their Composites 586 19.3.3 Polymer/Carbon Dots/Graphene-Based and Carbon Nitride-Based Photocatalyst and Their Composites 588 19.4 State of Art for the Nickel Used as Photocatalyst 591 19.5 Progress of Ni-Based Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Evolution 592 19.5.1 Metallic Form of Ni Used as Co-Catalyst 592 19.5.2 Ni-Based Oxide and Hydroxide Used as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 594 19.5.3 Ni-Based Sulfides Used as Co-Catalyst and Photocatalyst 596 19.5.4 Ni-Based Phosphides Used as Co-Catalyst Towards Hydrogen Production 598 19.5.5 Ni-Based Complex Act as Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 600 19.5.6 Other Ni-Based Co-Catalyst for Hydrogen Production 602 19.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective 608 Author Declaration 609 Acknowledgment 609 References 609 20 Use of Waste-Activated Sludge for the Production of Hydrogen 625 Hülya Civelek Yörüklü, Bilge Coşkuner Filiz and Aysel Kantürk Figen 20.1 Introduction 626 20.2 WAS to Hydrogen Production 629 20.2.1 Biohydrogen Production 629 20.2.1.1 Dark Fermentation 629 20.2.1.2 Photofermentation 632 20.2.1.3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 634 20.2.2 Thermochemical Hydrogen Production 635 20.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 636 20.2.2.2 Gasification 639 20.2.2.3 Super Critical Water Gasification 643 20.3 Conclusion Remarks 645 References 646 21 Current Trends in the Potential Use of the Metal-Organic Framework for Hydrogen Storage 655 Maryam Yousaf, Muhammad Ahmad, Zhi-Ping Zhao, Tehmeena Ishaq and Nasir Mahmood 21.1 Introduction 656 21.2 Structure of MOFs 657 21.3 Mechanism of H 2 Storage by MOFs 659 21.4 Strategies to Modify the Structure of MOFs for Enhanced H 2 Storage 661 21.4.1 Tuning the Surface Area, Pore Size, and Volume of MOFs 661 21.4.2 Enhancement in Unsaturated Open Metal Sites 663 21.4.3 MOFs with Interpenetration 665 21.4.4 Linker Functionalization of MOFs 667 21.4.5 Hybrid and Doping of MOFs 668 21.5 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 674 Acknowledgement 675 References 675 22 High-Density Solids as Hydrogen Storage Materials 681 Zeeshan Abid, Huma Naeem, Faiza Wahad, Sughra Gulzar, Tabassum Shahzad, Munazza Shahid, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf 22.1 Introduction 682 22.2 Metal Borohydrides 683 22.2.1 Lithium Borohydride 683 22.2.2 Sodium Borohydride 685 22.2.3 Potassium Borohydride 687 22.3 Metal Alanates 688 22.3.1 Lithium Alanate 688 22.3.2 Sodium Alanate 690 22.4 Ammonia Boranes 691 22.5 Metal Amides 693 22.5.1 Lithium Amide 693 22.5.2 Sodium Amide 694 22.6 Amine Metal Borohydrides 696 22.6.1 Amine Lithium Borohydrides 696 22.6.2 Amine Magnesium Borohydrides 697 22.6.3 Amine Calcium Borohydrides 698 22.6.4 Amine Aluminium Borohydrides 699 22.7 Conclusion 699 References 699 Index 707

About the Author :
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 19 book chapters, and 145 edited books with multiple well-known publishers, including Scrivener Publishing. He is a member of various editorial boards for scientific and technical journals and is an editor on several of them in different capacities. Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is an assistant professor and department head in the Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He is also the Vice Dean of the College of Science, and he leads a group involved in fundamental interdisciplinary research across numerous fields. Sayed Mohammed Adnan, PhD, is a research scholar in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, India. He is actively involved in research and has published several articles in reputed journals. His research areas are very broad, encompassing a multitude of scientific areas. Mohammed A. Amin, PhD, is a professor of physical chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, and a professor of physical chemistry at Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt. He has won numerous scholarly awards and has been a guest editor for a reputable scientific journal.