Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health

QUANTITATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ANALYSIS FOR HUMAN HEALTH An updated edition of the foundational guide to environmental risk analysis Environmental risk analysis is a systematic process essential for the evaluation, management, and communication of the human health risk posed by the release of contaminants to the environment. Performed correctly, risk analysis is an essential tool in the protection of the public from the health hazards posed by chemical and radioactive contaminants. Cultivating the quantitative skills required to perform risk analysis competently is a critical need. Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health meets this need with a thorough, comprehensive coverage of the fundamental knowledge necessary to assess environmental impacts on human health. It introduces readers to a robust methodology for analyzing environmental risk, as well as to the fundamental principles of uncertainty analysis and the pertinent environmental regulations. Now updated to reflect the latest research and new cutting-edge methodologies, this is an essential contribution to the practice of environmental risk analysis. Readers of the second edition of Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health will also find: Detailed treatment of source and release characterization, contaminant migration, exposure assessment, and more New coverage of computer-based analytical methods A new chapter of case studies providing actual, real-world examples of environmental risk assessments Quantitative Environmental Risk Analysis for Human Health is must-have for graduate and advanced undergraduate students in civil engineering, environmental engineering, and environmental science, as well as for risk analysis practitioners in industry, environmental consultants, and regulators.

Table of Contents:
List of Variables with Common Example Units xvii Preface to Second Edition xxvii Preface to First Edition xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Risk Analysis 2 1.2 Risk 4 1.3 Contaminants in the Environment 8 1.4 Uses of Environmental Risk Assessment 9 1.5 Risk Assessment Process 13 1.5.1 Problem Statement 13 1.5.2 System Description 14 1.5.3 Risk Calculation 14 1.5.4 Integration and Iteration 18 References 19 Additional Reading 20 Problems 21 2 Fundamental Aspects of Environmental Modeling 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Modeling Process 24 2.2.1 Model Development 24 2.2.2 Modeling Assurance 28 2.2.3 Environmental Modeling in Phases 30 2.3 Physical and Mathematical Basis for Risk Assessment Models 31 2.3.1 Mass Balances 31 2.3.2 Simple Models 40 2.4 Contaminant Transport Equation 47 2.4.1 Transport Processes 48 2.4.2 Derivation of the Contaminant Transport Equation 49 2.4.3 Zero-dimensional Solutions of the Contaminant Transport Equation 52 References 58 Additional Reading 59 Problems 59 3 Release Assessment 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Conceptual Model 65 3.3 Contaminant Identification 66 3.4 Emission-Rate Quantification 72 3.4.1 Release Probability 74 3.4.2 Contaminant Emission Rate 79 References 83 Additional Reading 84 Problems 84 4 Environmental Transport Theory 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 One-Dimensional Solutions of the Contaminant Transport Equation 89 4.2.1 One-dimensional Advection 89 4.2.2 One-dimensional Advection and Dispersion 95 4.3 Three-Dimensional Contaminant Transport 99 4.4 Advanced Solution Methods 100 4.4.1 Numerical Techniques 100 4.4.2 Superposition Integral 101 References 103 Additional Reading 104 Problems 104 5 Surface Water Transport 107 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 Types of Surface Water Bodies 109 5.2.1 Rivers and Streams 109 5.2.2 Lakes 111 5.2.3 Reservoirs on Rivers 111 5.2.4 Estuaries 111 5.2.5 Oceans 111 5.3 Sorption 112 5.3.1 Distribution Coefficient 112 5.3.2 Fraction Sorbed 116 5.3.3 Inclusion of Sorption in Transport Models 117 5.4 Transport Modeling 119 5.4.1 Lakes 119 5.4.2 Rivers and Streams 123 References 128 Additional Reading 129 Problems 129 6 Groundwater Transport 132 6.1 Introduction 132 6.2 Subsurface Characterization 134 6.3 Saturated Flow in Porous Media 135 6.3.1 Groundwater Speed and Direction 135 6.3.2 Porosity and Hydraulic Conductivity 138 6.3.3 Dispersion 138 6.4 Sorption 143 6.5 Subsurface Contaminant Transport Modeling 144 6.5.1 Linear Equilibrium Model of Subsurface Contaminant Transport 144 6.5.2 Saturated-Zone Transport Solutions 148 6.6 Other Considerations in Groundwater Transport 153 6.6.1 Vadose Zone Transport 153 6.6.2 Colloidal Transport 155 6.6.3 Transformations 155 6.6.4 NonAqueous-Phase Liquids 156 References 158 Additional Reading 159 Problems 159 7 Atmospheric Transport 163 7.1 Introduction 163 7.2 Atmospheric Dispersion 164 7.3 Atmospheric Transport Models 168 7.3.1 Constant Emission Rate: Gaussian Plume Model 168 7.3.2 Long-Term Averages 175 7.3.3 Infinite Line Source 179 7.3.4 Instantaneous Emission: Gaussian Puff Model 179 7.4 Other Considerations 180 7.4.1 Effective Release Height and Plume Rise 180 7.4.2 Building Wake 181 7.4.3 Release with Inversion Aloft 182 7.4.4 Nonconservative Processes 184 References 186 Additional Reading 187 Problems 187 8 Food Chain Transport 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Concentration in Soil 195 8.2.1 Conceptual Model 195 8.2.2 Atmospheric Deposition 197 8.2.3 Irrigation Deposition 197 8.2.4 Atmospheric Resuspension 198 8.3 Concentration in Vegetation 199 8.4 Concentration in Animals 204 References 206 Additional Reading 207 Problems 207 9 Exposure Assessment 210 9.1 Introduction 210 9.2 Dose 212 9.2.1 Chemical Dose 212 9.2.2 Radiological Dose 214 9.3 Contaminant Intake 215 9.3.1 Inhalation 216 9.3.2 Ingestion 216 9.3.3 Dermal Absorption 218 9.4 Dose Calculations 220 9.4.1 Chemical Dose Calculations 220 9.4.2 Radiological Dose Calculations 222 References 227 Additional Reading 228 Problems 228 10 Basic Human Toxicology 230 10.1 Introduction 230 10.2 Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology 231 10.2.1 Cellular Anatomy and Physiology 232 10.2.2 Cellular Mechanisms of Toxicity 237 10.2.3 Major Organ Systems 239 10.3 Mechanisms and Effects of Toxicity 250 10.3.1 Systemic Effects 250 10.3.2 Carcinogenic Effects 252 10.3.3 Teratogenic Effects 256 10.3.4 Hereditary Effects 258 References 259 Problems 261 11 Dose–Response and Risk Characterization 263 11.1 Introduction 263 11.2 Biological Basis of Dose–Response Modeling 264 11.3 Elements of Quantitative Dose–Response Analysis 266 11.3.1 Factors Affecting Toxicity 266 11.3.2 Quantification of Responses 272 11.3.3 Sources of Dose–Response Data 274 11.4 Dose–Response Modeling 279 11.4.1 Animal-to-Human Extrapolation 280 11.4.2 Dose–response models and high- to low-dose extrapolation 283 11.5 Risk Characterization 287 11.5.1 Margin of Exposure 287 11.5.2 Cancer Slope Factors and Unit Risk 289 11.6 Regulatory Implementation 290 11.6.1 The Benchmark Dose (BMD) Approach 291 11.6.2 Deterministic (Noncancer) Endpoints 293 11.6.3 Stochastic (Non-threshold) Endpoints 299 References 305 Additional Reading 308 Problems 308 12 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analyses 311 12.1 Introduction 311 12.2 Types and Sources of Uncertainty 312 12.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Considerations 312 12.2.2 Sources of Uncertainty 313 12.2.3 Types of Uncertainty 314 12.3 Statistics Fundamentals 317 12.3.1 Random Variables and Distribution Functions 317 12.3.2 Characterization of PDFs 319 12.3.3 Determination of Distributions 320 12.4 Uncertainty Propagation 324 12.4.1 Sensitivity Analysis 325 12.4.2 Methods for Uncertainty Propagation 327 References 340 Problems 343 13 Screening and Computational Resources 348 13.1 Introduction 348 13.2 Screening Tools 349 13.2.1 COMPLY/COMPLY-R 349 13.2.2 DandD 350 13.2.3 Groundwater Transport Calculator 350 13.2.4 RSL and RML 350 13.2.5 RAIS PRG Calculators 351 13.2.6 RAIS Risk Calculators 351 13.2.7 SERAFM 351 13.3 Surface Water Transport 352 13.3.1 BASINS 352 13.3.2 EFDC 352 13.3.3 LADTAP II 353 13.3.4 QUAL2K 353 13.3.5 WASP 354 13.3.6 SMS 13 354 13.4 Groundwater Transport 354 13.4.1 3DFEMWATER/3DLEWASTE 354 13.4.2 EPACMTP 355 13.4.3 GMS 355 13.4.4 HELP 355 13.4.5 MODFLOW 6 356 13.4.6 PORFLOW 356 13.4.7 STOMP 357 13.4.8 TOUGHREACT 357 13.5 Atmospheric Transport 357 13.5.1 AERMOD 358 13.5.2 ALOHA 358 13.5.3 CTDMPLUS 359 13.5.4 HOTSPOT 359 13.5.5 HYSPLIT 359 13.5.6 PAVAN 360 13.5.7 RASCAL 360 13.5.8 XOQDOQ 360 13.6 Food Chain Transport 361 13.6.1 BASS 361 13.6.2 CAP-88 PC 361 13.6.3 GASPAR II 362 13.6.4 MILDOS 4 362 13.7 Transport, Exposure, and Consequence Assessment Tools 363 13.7.1 CalTOX 363 13.7.2 FRAMES-2.0 363 13.7.3 GENII 364 13.7.4 GOLDSIM 364 13.7.5 MEPAS 364 13.7.6 RESRAD 365 13.7.7 Risk Analyst 366 13.8 Geochemical Speciation Modeling 367 13.8.1 GWB 367 13.8.2 MINEQL+ 368 13.8.3 MINTEQA2/VISUAL MINTEQ 368 13.8.4 PHREEQC 368 13.9 Uncertainty 369 13.10 Other Useful Computational Resources 370 13.10.1 RESRAD-BUILD 370 13.10.2 SADA 370 13.10.3 VSP 370 13.10.4 BMDS 370 References 370 14 Case Studies 376 14.1 Introduction 376 14.2 PFAS 376 14.2.1 Background 377 14.2.2 Wilbur Earl Tenant’s Farm (EPA 2001, Bilott 2019) 377 14.2.3 Parkersburg and EPA (EPA 2001, Bilott 2019) 378 14.2.4 Epilogue 379 14.3 Arsenic in Drinking Water 380 14.3.1 Introduction 380 14.3.2 Risk Calculation 381 14.3.3 Risk Assessment 381 14.4 MCHM 382 14.4.1 Background 382 14.4.2 Calculation of MCHM Concentration 383 14.4.3 Epilogue 386 14.5 Releases from Rocky Flats 387 14.5.1 Introduction 388 14.5.2 1957 Plutonium Fire Basic Risk Assessment 388 14.5.3 Rocky Flats Comprehensive Risk Assessment 390 14.5.4 Comparisons for 1957 Plutonium Fire 391 14.5.5 Epilogue 393 References 393 Problems 395 15 Ethics, Stakeholder Involvement, and Risk Communication 396 15.1 Introduction 396 15.2 Ethics 397 15.2.1 Overview 397 15.2.2 Ethical Theories 397 15.2.3 Environmental Ethics 398 15.3 Stakeholder Involvement 400 15.3.1 Motivation 400 15.3.2 Potential Benefits and Detriments 401 15.3.3 Scope of Stakeholder Involvement 403 15.3.4 Legal Basis and Requirements 405 15.3.5 Methods and Approaches 405 15.4 Risk Communication 410 15.4.1 Scientific Basis 411 15.4.2 Practical Considerations 416 15.4.3 Unresolved Issues 417 References 418 Problems 422 16 Environmental Risk Management 423 16.1 Introduction 423 16.2 Risk Management Process 423 16.3 Risk Management Methods 424 16.3.1 Approaches to Risk Management 424 16.3.2 Fundamentals of Decision Analysis 426 16.3.3 Methods for Decision Analysis Under Certainty 433 16.3.4 Methods for Decision Analysis Under Risk 438 References 441 Problems 442 17 Environmental Laws and Regulations 444 17.1 Introduction 444 17.2 General Legal and Regulatory Structure for Environmental Protection 444 17.2.1 U.S. Governmental Structure 444 17.2.2 Regulatory Hierarchy 445 17.3 Major Federal Environmental Laws and Regulations 446 17.3.1 National Environmental Policy Act 447 17.3.2 CERCLA and SARA 449 17.3.3 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 452 17.3.4 Toxic Substances Control Act 453 17.3.5 Clean Air Act 454 17.3.6 Clean Water Act 456 17.4 CERCLA Process 457 17.4.1 Remedial Actions Under CERCLA 457 17.4.2 Risk Assessment in the RI/FS Process 458 17.5 Additional Regulations 459 References 460 Problems 461 Appendix A Mathematical Tools 462 A. 1 Special Functions 462 A.1. 1 Dirac Delta Function 462 A.1. 2 Heaviside Unit Step Function 463 A.1. 3 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 463 A.1. 4 Gamma Function 464 A. 2 Laplace Transforms 465 A.2. 1 Definitions and Notation 465 A.2. 2 Basic Transforms and Properties 466 A.2. 3 Solution of Differential Equations with Laplace Transforms 467 A. 3 Exact Solutions to the One-Dimensional Contaminant Transport Equation 470 References 473 Additional Reading 474 Appendix B Degradation and Decay Parameters 475 Index 477 

About the Author :
Robert A. Fjeld, PhD, is an Emeritus Professor and Dempsey Chair of Environmental Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, USA. He is a pioneering researcher of quantitative human health risk assessment and the author of numerous related publications. Timothy A. DeVol, PhD, CHP, is Toshiba Professor of Nuclear Engineering and Director of the Nuclear Environmental Engineering Sciences and Radioactive Waste Management Center at Clemson University. His research interests are on radioactive material detection and environmental health physics. Nicole E. Martinez, PhD, CHP, is an Associate Professor of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University with a Joint Faculty Appointment at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Her research focuses on dosimetric modeling and the transport and effects of environmental contaminants.