Ice Adhesion: Mechanism, Measurement, and Mitigation(Adhesion and Adhesives: Fundamental and Applied Aspects)

This unique book presents ways to mitigate the disastrous effects of snow/ice accumulation and discusses the mechanisms of new coatings deicing technologies. The strategies currently used to combat ice accumulation problems involve chemical, mechanical or electrical approaches. These are expensive and labor intensive, and the use of chemicals raises serious environmental concerns. The availability of truly icephobic surfaces or coatings will be a big boon in preventing the devastating effects of ice accumulation. Currently, there is tremendous interest in harnessing nanotechnology in rendering surfaces icephobic or in devising icephobic surface materials and coatings, and all signals indicate that such interest will continue unabated in the future. As the key issue regarding icephobic materials or coatings is their durability, much effort is being spent in developing surface materials or coatings which can be effective over a long period. With the tremendous activity in this arena, there is strong hope that in the not too distant future, durable surface materials or coatings will come to fruition. This book contains 20 chapters by subject matter experts and is divided into three parts— Part 1: Fundamentals of Ice Formation and Characterization; Part 2: Ice Adhesion and Its Measurement; and Part 3: Methods to Mitigate Ice Adhesion. The topics covered include: factors influencing the formation, adhesion and friction of ice; ice nucleation on solid surfaces; physics of ice nucleation and growth on a surface; condensation frosting; defrosting properties of structured surfaces; relationship between surface free energy and ice adhesion to surfaces; metrology of ice adhesion; test methods for quantifying ice adhesion strength to surfaces; interlaboratory studies of ice adhesion strength; mechanisms of surface icing and deicing technologies; icephobicities of superhydrophobic surfaces; anti-icing using microstructured surfaces; icephobic surfaces: features and challenges; bio-inspired anti-icing surface materials; durability of anti-icing coatings; durability of icephobic coatings; bio-inspired icephobic coatings; protection from ice accretion on aircraft; and numerical modeling and its application to inflight icing.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv Part 1: Fundamentals of Ice Formation and Characterization 1 1 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice 3 Michael J. Wood and Anne-Marie Kietzig 1.1 A Brief History of Man and Ice 4 1.1.1 Ice on Earth 4 1.1.2 Man is Carved of Ice 5 1.1.3 Modern Man Carves Ice 8 1.2 A Thermodynamically Designed Anti-Icing Surface 13 1.2.1 Homogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 14 1.2.2 Heterogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 16 1.2.3 Predicting Delays in Ice Nucleation 20 1.2.4 Predicting Ice Nucleation Temperatures 22 1.3 The Adhesion of Ice to Surfaces 25 1.3.1 Wetting and Icing of Ideal Surfaces 26 1.3.2 Wetting of Real Surfaces 30 1.3.3 Ice Adhesion to Real Surfaces 32 1.4 The Sliding Friction of Ice 38 1.4.1 Ice Friction Regimes 39 1.4.2 The Origin of Ice’s Liquid-Like Layer 42 1.4.3 Parameters Affecting The Friction Coefficient of Ice 43 1. 5 Summary 45 References 46 2 Water and Ice Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 55 Youmin Hou, Hans-Jürgen Butt and Michael Kappl 2.1 Introduction 55 2.2 Classical Nucleation Theory 57 2.2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation Rate 59 2.2.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets and Ice from Vapor 60 2.2.1.2 Homogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 61 2.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation Rate 63 2.2.2.1 Heterogeneous Water Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 63 2.2.3 Spatial Control of Water Nucleation on Nanoengineered Surfaces 68 2.2.4 Heterogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 71 2.3 Prospects 76 2.4 Summary 78 Acknowledgement 79 References 79 3 Physics of Ice Nucleation and Growth on a Surface 87 Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi 3.1 Ice Nucleation 88 3.2 Ice Growth 94 3.2.1 Scenario I: Droplet in an Environment without Airflow 95 3.2.2 Scenario II: Droplet in an Environment with External Airflow 99 3.3 Ice Bridging Phenomenon 105 3.4 Summary 108 References 109 4 Condensation Frosting 111 S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Why Supercooled Condensation? 114 4.3 Inter-Droplet Freeze Fronts 117 4.4 Dry Zones and Anti-Frosting Surfaces 124 4.5 Summary and Future Directions 129 References 131 5 The Role of Droplet Dynamics in Condensation Frosting 135 Amy Rachel Betz 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 Nucleation 137 5.3 Growth 138 5.4 Coalescence and Sweeping 139 5.5 Regeneration or Re-Nucleation 146 5.6 Inception of Freezing 147 5.7 Freezing Front Propagation 149 5.8 Ice Bridging 150 5.9 Frost Growth and Densification 153 5.10 Concluding Discussion 155 Acknowledgments 156 References 156 6 Defrosting Properties of Structured Surfaces 161 S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko 6.1 Introduction: Defrosting on Smooth Surfaces 162 6.2 Defrosting Heat Exchangers 167 6.3 Dynamic Defrosting on Micro-Grooved Surfaces 170 6.4 Dynamic Defrosting on Liquid-Impregnated Surfaces 172 6.5 Dynamic Defrosting on Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Surfaces 176 6.6 Summary and Future Directions 179 References 181 Part 2: Ice Adhesion and Its Measurement 187 7 On the Relationship between Surface Free Energy and Ice Adhesion of Flat Anti-Icing Surfaces 189 Salih Ozbay and H. Yildirim Erbil 7.1 Introduction 190 7.2 Types of Ice Formation 193 7.2.1 Ice Formation from Supercooled Drops on a Surface 193 7.2.2 Frost Formation from the Existing Humidity in the Medium 194 7.3 Work of Adhesion, Wettability and Surface Free Energy 195 7.4 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength and Its Standardization 197 7.5 Effect of Water Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy Parameters on Ice Adhesion Strength 199 7.6 Summary 205 References 206 8 Metrology of Ice Adhesion 217 Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi 8.1 Theory of Ice Adhesion to a Surface 218 8.2 Centrifugal Force Method 221 8.3 Peak Force Method 224 8.4 Tensile Force Method 230 8.5 Standard Procedure for Ice Adhesion Measurement 231 8.6 Summary 233 References 233 9 Tensile and Shear Test Methods for Quantifying the Ice Adhesion Strength to a Surface 237 Alexandre Laroche, Maria Jose Grasso, Ali Dolatabadi and Elmar Bonaccurso Glossary 237 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 About Ice, Impact Ice, and Ice Adhesion Tests 241 9.2.1 Relationship between Wettability and Ice Adhesion 241 9.2.2 A Simple Picture of Condition-Dependent Ice Growth 246 9.2.3 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength 248 9.3 Review of Ice Adhesion Test Methods 253 9.3.1 Shear Tests 257 9.3.1.1 Pusher and Lap Shear Tests 257 9.3.1.2 Spinning Test Rigs 263 9.3.1.3 Vibrating Cantilever Tests 269 9.3.2 Tensile Tests 274 9.4 Prospects 279 9.5 Summary 279 Acknowledgements 280 References 280 10 Comparison of Icephobic Materials through Interlaboratory Studies 285 Sigrid Rønneberg, Caroline Laforte, Jianying He and Zhiliang Zhang 10.1 Introduction 286 10.2 Icephobicity and Anti-Icing Surfaces 288 10.3 Ice Formation and Properties 289 10.3.1 Definitions of Ice 290 10.3.2 The Effect of Ice Type on Ice Adhesion Strength 294 10.4 Testing Ice Adhesion 299 10.4.1 Description of Selected Common Ice Adhesion Tests 299 10.4.2 Adhesion Reduction Factor 303 10.4.3 Effect of Experimental Parameters 305 10.4.3.1 Temperature 305 10.4.3.2 Ice Sample Size 307 10.4.3.3 Force Probe Placement and Loading Rate 308 10.5 Comparing Low Ice Adhesion Surfaces with Interlaboratory Tests 310 10.5.1 The Need for Comparability 310 10.5.2 Interlaboratory Test Procedure 311 10.5.3 Interlaboratory Test Results 314 10.5.4 Properties of a Future Standard and Reference 317 10.6 Concluding Remarks 319 References 320 Part 3: Methods to Mitigate Ice Adhesion 325 11 Mechanisms of Surface Icing and Deicing Technologies 327 Ilker S. Bayer 11.1 A Brief Description of Icing and Ice Adhesion 328 11.2 Examples of Mathematical Modeling of Icing on Various Static or Moving Surfaces 331 11.3 New Applications of Common Deicing Compounds 334 11.4 Plasma-Based Deicing Systems 336 11.5 Functional Super (Hydrophilic) or Wettable Polymeric Coatings to Resist Icing 340 11.6 Nanoscale Carbon Coatings with/without Resistive Heating 345 11.7 Antifreeze Proteins 349 11.8 Summary and Perspectives 354 References 355 12 Icephobicities of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 361 Dong Song, Youhua Jiang, Mohammad Amin Sarshar and Chang-Hwan Choi 12.1 Introduction 362 12.2 Anti-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Dynamic Flow Conditions 369 12.2.1 Preparation of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 369 12.2.2 Anti-Icing Test under Dynamic Flow Conditions 369 12.2.3 Results and Discussion 372 12.3 Analytical Models of Depinning Force on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 374 12.4 Analytical Models of Contact Angles on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 378 12.5 De-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Static Conditions 381 12.5.1 De-Icing Test under Static Conditions 381 12.5.2 Results and Discussion 382 12.6 Conclusions 384 Acknowledgments 384 References 384 13 Ice Adhesion and Anti-Icing Using Microtextured Surfaces 389 Mool C. Gupta and Alan Mulroney 13.1 Introduction 389 13.1.1 Background 389 13.1.2 State-of-the-Art 392 13.2 Microtextured Surfaces: Wetting Characteristics and Anti-Icing Properties 393 13.2.1 Wetting on Microtextured Surfaces 393 13.2.2 Wetting and Icephobic Surfaces 396 13.2.3 Ice Adhesion to Microtextured Surfaces 398 13.3 Measurement Methods for Ice Adhesion 398 13.3.1 Force Measurement Techniques 399 13.3.2 Contact Area Measurements 400 13.3.3 Measurement Variance and Error 401 13.4 Fabrication Methods for Microtextured Surfaces 402 13.4.1 Micro/Nanoparticle Coatings 402 13.4.2 Chemical Etching 403 13.4.3 Laser Ablation Techniques 404 13.4.4 Embossing Techniques 406 13.5 Microtextured Surfaces and Anti-Icing Applications 407 13.5.1 Solar 408 13.5.2 Wind 409 13.5.3 Aircraft 410 13.5.4 HVAC 410 13.6 Future Outlook 411 Acknowledgments 411 References 412 14 Icephobic Surfaces: Features and Challenges 417 Michael Grizen and Manish K. Tiwari 14.1 Introduction 418 14.2 Features and Challenges in Rational Fabrication of Icephobic Surfaces 418 14.3 Wettability 420 14.4 Surface Engineering 422 14.4.1 Repelling Impacting Droplets 422 14.4.1.1 Drop Impact Characterization 422 14.4.1.2 Enhancing Surface Resistance against Drop Impact 425 14.4.1.3 Additional Factors Affecting Supercooled Droplet Impacts 431 14.4.2 Freezing Delay 432 14.4.2.1 Delaying Freezing of a Droplet 432 14.4.2.2 Delaying Frost Formation 437 14.4.3 Ice Adhesion 443 14.4.3.1 Theory 443 14.4.3.2 Strategies to Lower Ice Adhesion Strength 447 14.5 De-Icing 454 14.5.1 Electro- and Photo-Thermal 455 14.5.2 Magneto- and Photo-Thermal 456 14.6 Summary 457 References 458 15 Bio-Inspired Anti-Icing Surface Materials 467 Shuwang Wu, Yichen Yan, Dong Wu, Zhiyuan He and Ximin He Glossary of Symbols 468 Glossary of Abbreviations 468 15.1 Introduction 469 15.2 Depressing Ice Nucleation 471 15.3 Retarding Ice Propagation 474 15.4 Reducing Ice Adhesion 479 15.5 All-in-One Anti-Icing Materials 482 15.6 Summary and Conclusions 485 References 486 16 Testing the Durability of Anti-Icing Coatings 495 Sergei A. Kulinich, Denis Masson, Xi-Wen Du and Alexandre M. Emelyanenko 16.1 Introduction 496 16.2 Icing/Deicing Tests and Ice Types 497 16.2.1 Evaluating the Durability of Surfaces 498 16.2.2 Rough Superhydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 506 16.2.3 Smooth Hydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 511 16.3 Concluding Remarks 513 References 514 17 Durability Assessment of Icephobic Coatings 521 Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi 17.1 Introduction 522 17.2 UV-Induced Degradation 523 17.2.1 Autocatalytic Photo-Induced Degradation Mechanism 523 17.2.2 Factors Affecting UV Resistance 524 17.2.3 UV-Induced Photo-Oxidation Prevention 525 17.3 Hydrolytic Degradation of Coatings 527 17.4 Atmospheric Conditions and Changes in Coating Performance 529 17.5 Mechanical Durability of Coating 532 17.5.1 Cracking 533 17.5.2 Erosion of Coatings 535 17.5.3 Abrasion 536 17.6 Methods for Durability Assessment of an Icephobic Coating 539 17.7 Summary 542 References 543 18 Experimental Investigations on Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings for Aircraft Inflight Icing Mitigation 547 Yang Liu and Hui Hu 18.1 Introduction About Aircraft Icing Phenomena 548 18.2 Impact Icing Pertinent to Aircraft Icing vs. Conventional Frosting or Static Icing 551 18.3 State-of-the-Art Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 553 18.3.1 Superhydrophobic Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Scale Textures 555 18.3.2 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces 557 18.3.3 Icephobic Soft Materials with Ultra-Low Ice Adhesion Strength and Good Mechanical Durability 558 18.4 Comparison of Ice Adhesion Strengths of Different Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 560 18.5 Durability of the Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings under High-Speed Droplet Impacting 562 18.6 Icing Tunnel Testing to Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Icephobic Coatings for Impact Icing Mitigation 566 18.7 Summary 569 Acknowledgments 571 References 571 19 Effect of and Protection from Ice Accretion on Aircraft 577 Zhenlong Wu and Qiang Wang Glossary 577 19.1 Introduction 578 19.2 Fundamental Icing Parameters 579 19.2.1 Droplet Diameter 579 19.2.2 Liquid Water Content 580 19.2.3 Ambient Icing Temperature 581 19.3 Types of Ice on Aircraft 581 19.3.1 Rime Ice 581 19.3.2 Glaze Ice 582 19.3.3 Mixed Ice 583 19.4 Aircraft Icing Effects 584 19.4.1 Iced Aerodynamics 584 19.4.1.1 Drag Rise 584 19.4.1.2 Lift Reduction 586 19.4.1.3 Moment Variation 589 19.4.1.4 Separation Bubble Formation 590 19.4.1.5 Boundary Layer Thickening 592 19.4.2 Iced Flight Mechanics 594 19.4.2.1 Flight Performance Disruption 594 19.4.2.2 Stability and Control Degradation 596 19.5 Sensing of and Protection from Aircraft Icing 596 19.5.1 Sensing of Ice Accretion 596 19.5.2 De-Icing and Anti-Icing 598 19.5.3 Envelope Protection 599 19.5.4 Control Reconfiguration 601 19.6 Summary 603 Funding and Acknowledgement 603 References 603 20 Numerical Modeling and Its Application to Inflight Icing 607 Kwanjung Yee 20.1 Introduction 608 20.2 Aircraft Icing 609 20.2.1 Icing Environment 609 20.2.1.1 Cloud Formation 609 20.2.1.2 Cloud Classification 609 20.2.1.3 Icing Cloud 613 20.2.1.4 Icing Envelope 615 20.2.2 Icing Mechanism 617 20.2.2.1 Fundamentals of Icing 617 20.2.2.2 Characterization of Ice Shape 620 20.2.2.3 Critical Issues in Icing Physics 621 20.3 Numerical Technique for Inflight Icing 625 20.3.1 Composition of the Inflight Icing Code 626 20.3.2 Flow Analysis Solver 628 20.3.2.1 Inviscid Flow Solver 628 20.3.2.2 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equation 631 20.3.3 Droplet Trajectory Module 635 20.3.3.1 Lagrangian Approach 635 20.3.3.2 Eulerian Approach 637 20.3.4 Thermodynamic Module 639 20.3.4.1 Messinger Model 639 20.3.4.2 Extended Messinger Model (Stefan Equation) 641 20.3.4.3 Shallow Water Icing Model (SWIM) 642 20.3.5 Ice Growth Module 644 20.3.6 Application of the Numerical Simulation 645 20.3.6.1 2D Airfoil 646 20.3.6.2 3D DLR-F6 Configuration 647 20.3.6.3 Rotorcraft Fuselage 649 20.4 Numerical Simulation of Icing Protection System (IPS) 651 20.4.1 IPS 651 20.4.2 Simulation for IPS 653 20.4.3 Thermal IPS Simulation Analysis 655 20.4.3.1 Electro-Thermal IPS Simulation 655 20.4.3.2 Water Film Analysis 656 20.5 Numerical Issues in the Inflight Icing Code 658 20.5.1 Analysis of the Surface Roughness 658 20.5.2 Analysis of the Transition in the Boundary Layer Problem 659 20.5.3 Analysis of the Rotor Blade Icing Problem 660 20.5.4 Analysis of the Uncertainty Qualification (UQ) 661 20.6 Summary 662 References 663

About the Author :
Kashmiri Lal Mittal was employed by the IBM Corporation from 1972 through 1993. Currently, he is teaching and consulting worldwide in the broad areas of adhesion as well as surface cleaning. He has received numerous awards and honors including the title of doctor honoris causa from Maria Curie- Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland. He is the editor of more than 135 books dealing with adhesion measurement, adhesion of polymeric coatings, polymer surfaces, adhesive joints, adhesion promoters, thin films, polyimides, surface modification surface cleaning, and surfactants. Dr. Mittal is also the Founding Editor of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. Chang-Hwan Choi is a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology. He acquired his BS (1995) and MS (1997) in Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering from Seoul National University in Korea. He worked as a researcher at Korea Aerospace Research Institute before he received his PhD (2006) in Mechanical Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), specializing in MEMS/Nanotechnology and minoring in Fluid Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering. Areas of his research interest include surface engineering and interfacial phenomena. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed journal articles and been awarded one patent.