Conceptual Aircraft Design: An Industrial Approach(Aerospace Series)

Provides a Comprehensive Introduction to Aircraft Design with an Industrial Approach  This book introduces readers to aircraft design, placing great emphasis on industrial practice. It includes worked out design examples for several different classes of aircraft, including Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, BAe Hawk and Airbus A320. It considers performance substantiation and compliance to certification requirements and market specifications of take-off/landing field lengths, initial climb/high speed cruise, turning capability and payload/range. Military requirements are discussed, covering some aspects of combat, as is operating cost estimation methodology, safety considerations, environmental issues, flight deck layout, avionics and more general aircraft systems. The book also includes a chapter on electric aircraft design along with a full range of industry standard aircraft sizing analyses. Split into two parts, Conceptual Aircraft Design: An Industrial Approach spends the first part dealing with the pre-requisite information for configuring aircraft so that readers can make informed decisions when designing vessels. The second part devotes itself to new aircraft concept definition. It also offers additional analyses and design information (e.g., on cost, manufacture, systems, role of CFD, etc.) integral to conceptual design study. The book finishes with an introduction to electric aircraft and futuristic design concepts currently under study. Presents an informative, industrial approach to aircraft design Features design examples for aircraft such as the Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, BAe Hawk, Airbus A320 Includes a full range of industry standard aircraft sizing analyses Looks at several performance substantiation and compliance to certification requirements Discusses the military requirements covering some combat aspects Accompanied by a website hosting supporting material Conceptual Aircraft Design: An Industrial Approach is an excellent resource for those designing and building modern aircraft for commercial, military, and private use.

Table of Contents:
Series Preface xxxvii Preface xxxix Individual Acknowledgements By Ajoy Kumar Kundu xli By Mark A. Price xlv By David Riordan xlvii List of Symbols and Abbreviations xlix Road Map of the Book lvii Part I Prerequisites 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Overview 3 1.2 Brief Historical Background 4 1.3 Aircraft Evolution 10 1.4 Current Aircraft Design Trends for both Civil and Military Aircraft (the 1980s Onwards) 13 1.5 Future Trends 16 1.6 Forces and Drivers 23 1.7 Airworthiness Requirements 23 1.8 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 25 1.9 Aircraft Classification 26 1.10 Topics of Current Research Interest Related to Aircraft Design (Supersonic/Subsonic) 27 1.11 Cost Implications 30 1.12 The Classroom Learning Process 30 1.13 Units and Dimensions 34 1.14 Use of Semi-Empirical Relations and Datasheets 34 1.15 The Atmosphere 36 References 45 2 Aircraft Familiarity, Aircraft Design Process, Market Study 46 2.1 Overview 46 2.2 Introduction 47 2.3 Aircraft Familiarisation 48 2.4 Typical Aircraft Design Process 53 2.5 Market Survey – Project Identification 53 2.6 Four Phases of Aircraft Design 57 2.7 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase 62 2.8 Aircraft Specifications forThree Civil Aircraft Case Studies 67 2.9 MilitaryMarket – Some TypicalMilitary Aircraft Design Specifications 70 2.10 Airworthiness Requirements 73 2.11 Coursework Procedures – Market Survey 75 References 76 3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals, Definitions and Aerofoils 78 3.1 Overview 78 3.2 Introduction 79 3.3 Airflow Behaviour – Laminar and Turbulent 80 3.4 Flow Past an Aerofoil 84 3.5 Generation of Lift 85 3.6 Aircraft Motion, Forces and Moments 86 3.7 Definitions of Aerodynamic Parameters 91 3.8 Aerofoils 91 3.9 Reynolds Number and Surface Condition Effects on Aerofoils – Using NACA Aerofoil Test Data 101 3.10 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 105 3.11 Types of Stall 109 3.12 High-Lift Devices 110 3.13 Flow Regimes 112 3.14 Summary 117 3.15 Aerofoil Design and Manufacture 123 3.16 Aircraft Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure and Neutral Point 125 References 125 4 Wings 127 4.1 Overview 127 4.2 Introduction 128 4.3 GenericWing Planform Shapes 128 4.4 Wing Position Relative to Fuselage 132 4.5 Structural Considerations 136 4.6 Wing Parameter Definitions 137 4.7 Spanwise Variation of Aerofoil t/c and Incidence 139 4.8 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) 140 4.9 Wing Aerodynamics 145 4.10 Wing Load 153 4.11 Compressibility Effect:Wing Sweep 160 4.12 TransonicWings 167 4.13 SupersonicWings 167 4.14 Additional Vortex Lift – LE Suction 170 4.15 High-Lift Devices on theWing – Flaps and Slats 170 4.16 Additional Surfaces on theWing 175 4.17 The Square-Cube Law 176 4.18 Influence ofWing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 177 4.19 Summary ofWing Design 179 References 183 5 Bodies – Fuselages, Nacelle Pods, Intakes and the Associated Systems 184 5.1 Overview 184 5.2 Introduction 185 CIVIL AIRCRAFT 188 5.3 Fuselage Geometry – Civil Aircraft 188 5.4 Fuselage Closures – Civil Aircraft 189 5.5 Fuselage Fineness Ratio (FR) 192 5.6 Fuselage Cross-Sectional Geometry – Civil Aircraft 194 5.7 Fuselage Abreast Seating – Civil Aircraft 195 5.8 Cabin Seat Layout 197 5.9 Fuselage Layout 205 5.10 Fuselage Aerodynamic Considerations 206 5.11 Fuselage Pitching Moment 208 5.12 Nacelle Pod – Civil Aircraft 213 5.13 Exhaust Nozzles – Civil Aircraft 220 MILITARY AIRCRAFT 222 5.14 Fuselage Geometry – Military Aircraft 222 5.15 Pilot Cockpit/Flight Deck – Military Aircraft 224 5.16 Engine Installation – Military Aircraft 224 References 228 6 Empennage and Other Planar Surfaces 229 6.1 Overview 229 6.2 Introduction 230 6.3 Terminologies and Definitions of Empennage 231 6.4 Empennage Mount and Types 232 6.5 Different Kinds of Empennage Design 235 6.6 Empennage Tail Arm 237 6.7 Empennage Aerodynamics 240 6.8 Aircraft Control System 256 6.9 Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs 259 6.10 Empennage Design 262 6.11 Other Planar Surfaces 264 References 267 7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout 268 7.1 Overview 268 7.2 Introduction 269 CIVIL AIRCRAFT 270 7.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range) 270 7.4 Civil Subsonic Jet Aircraft Statistics (Sizing Parameters) 271 7.5 Internal Arrangements of Fuselage – Civil Aircraft 282 7.6 Some Interesting Aircraft Configurations – Civil Aircraft 288 7.7 Summary of Civil Aircraft Design Choices 291 MILITARY AIRCRAFT 292 7.8 Military Aircraft: Detailed Classification, Evolutionary Pattern and Mission Profile 292 7.9 Military Aircraft Mission 299 7.10 Military Aircraft Statistics (Regression Analysis) 299 7.11 Military Aircraft Component Geometries 304 7.12 Miscellaneous Comments 310 7.13 Summary of Military Aircraft Design Choices 310 References 311 Part II Aircraft Design 313 8 Configuring Aircraft – Concept Definition 315 8.1 Overview 315 8.2 Introduction 317 CIVIL AIRCRAFT 321 8.3 Prerequisites to Initiate Conceptual Design of Civil Aircraft 321 8.4 Fuselage Design 325 8.5 Wing Design 327 8.6 Empennage Design 330 8.7 Nacelle and Pylon Design 334 8.8 Undercarriage 337 8.9 Worked-Out Example: Configuring a Bizjet Class Aircraft 337 MILITARY AIRCRAFT 350 8.10 Prerequisite to Initiate Military (Combat/Trainer) Aircraft Design 350 8.11 Fuselage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 354 8.12 Wing Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 356 8.13 Empennage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 358 8.14 Engine/Intake/Nozzle (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 360 8.15 Undercarriage (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft) 361 8.16 Worked-Out Example – Configuring Military AJT Class Aircraft 361 8.17 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT) 374 References 383 9 Undercarriage 384 9.1 Overview 384 9.2 Introduction 385 9.3 Types of Undercarriage 387 9.4 Undercarriage Description 388 9.5 Undercarriage Nomenclature and Definitions 391 9.6 Undercarriage Retraction and Stowage 393 9.7 Undercarriage Design Drivers and Considerations 394 9.8 Tyre Friction with the Ground: Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficient 396 9.9 Load on Wheels and Shock Absorbers 397 9.10 Energy Absorbed 400 9.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) 402 9.12 Runway Pavement 403 9.13 Airfield/Runway Strength and Aircraft Operating Compatibility 404 9.14 Wheels and Tyres 407 9.15 Tyre Nomenclature, Classification, Loading and Selection 411 9.16 Configuring Undercarriage Layout and Positioning 414 9.17 Worked-Out Examples 417 9.18 Discussion and Miscellaneous Considerations 426 References 427 10 Aircraft Weight and Centre of Gravity Estimation 428 10.1 Overview 428 10.2 Introduction 429 10.3 The Weight Drivers 431 10.4 Aircraft Mass (Weight) Breakdown 432 10.5 Aircraft CG and Neutral Point Positions 433 10.6 Aircraft Component Groups 436 10.7 Aircraft Component Mass Estimation 438 CIVIL AIRCRAFT 443 10.8 Mass Fraction Method – Civil Aircraft 443 10.9 Graphical Method – Civil Aircraft 445 10.10 Semi-Empirical Equation Method (Statistical) 446 10.11 Centre of Gravity Determination 455 10.12 Worked-Out Example – Bizjet Aircraft 456 MILITARY AIRCRAFT 461 10.13 Mass Fraction Method – Military Aircraft 461 10.14 Graphical Method to Predict Aircraft ComponentWeight – Military Aircraft 463 10.15 Semi-Empirical Equations Method (Statistical) – Military Aircraft 463 10.16 CG Determination – Military Aircraft 468 10.17 Classroom Example of Military AJT/CAS Aircraft Mass Estimation 468 10.18 AJT Mass Estimation and CG Location 471 10.19 Classroom Example of a Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Aircraft and COIN Variant Weight Estimation 472 10.20 Classroom Worked-Out TPT Mass Estimation and CG Location 476 10.21 Summary of Concept Definition 478 References 478 11 Aircraft Drag 479 11.1 Overview 479 11.2 Introduction 480 11.3 Parasite Drag Definition 481 11.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 482 11.4.1 Discussion 483 11.5 Understanding Drag Polar 483 11.6 Aircraft Drag Formulation 487 11.7 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology (Subsonic) 488 11.8 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 489 11.9 Semi-Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft-Component Parasite Drag 491 11.10 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 500 11.11 Minimum Parasite Drag 501 11.12 ΔCDp Estimation 501 11.13 Subsonic Wave Drag 502 11.14 Total Aircraft Drag 503 11.15 Low-Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 503 11.16 Propeller-Driven Aircraft Drag 508 11.17 Military Aircraft Drag 509 11.18 Supersonic Drag 509 11.19 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft 511 11.20 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer – AJT) 519 11.21 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer (TPT) 522 11.22 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft 527 11.23 Drag Comparison 537 11.24 Some Concluding Remarks 538 References 538 12 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 540 12.1 Overview 540 12.2 Background 540 12.3 Definitions 543 12.4 Introduction – Air-Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 546 12.5 Simplified Representation of a Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 551 12.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case (Trend Analysis) 551 12.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects 556 12.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 560 12.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser (TR) 563 12.10 Propeller 566 12.11 Propeller Theory 568 12.12 Propeller Performance – Use of Charts, Practical Engineering Applications 572 References 575 13 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 577 13.1 Overview 577 13.2 Introduction 578 13.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft 581 13.4 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 590 13.5 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 594 13.6 Piston Engine 598 13.7 Engine Performance Grid 602 13.8 Some Turbofan Data (OPR = Overall Pressure Ratio) 606 References 607 14 Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching and Variant Derivatives 608 14.1 Overview 608 14.2 Introduction 609 14.3 Theory 610 14.4 Coursework Exercise – Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 615 14.5 Sizing Analysis – Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 617 14.6 Coursework Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT) 619 14.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft (AJT) 623 14.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 625 14.9 Discussion 626 References 630 15 Aircraft Performance 631 15.1 Overview 631 15.2 Introduction 632 15.3 Takeoff Performance 635 15.4 Landing Performance 642 15.5 Climb Performance 644 15.6 Descent Performance 648 15.7 Checking of the InitialMaximum Cruise Speed Capability 649 15.8 Payload-Range Capability – Derivation of Range Equations 649 15.9 In Horizontal Plane (Yaw Plane) – Sustained Coordinated Turn 651 15.10 Aircraft Performance Substantiation –Worked-Out Classroom Examples – Bizjet 653 15.11 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Military AJT 668 15.12 Propeller-Driven Aircraft – TPT (Parabolic Drag Polar) 677 15.13 Summarised Discussion of the Design 678 References 681 16 Aircraft Cost Considerations 682 16.1 Overview 682 16.2 Introduction 683 16.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 686 16.4 Rapid Cost Modelling 690 16.5 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 701 16.6 Aircraft Performance Management 707 References 710 Part III Further Design Considerations 713 17 Aircraft Load 715 17.1 Overview 715 17.2 Introduction 715 17.3 Flight Manoeuvres 718 17.4 Aircraft Loads 718 17.5 Theory and Definitions 719 17.6 Limits – Load and Speeds 720 17.7 V-n Diagram 721 17.8 Gust Envelope 726 References 729 18 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Design 730 18.1 Overview 730 18.2 Introduction 730 18.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 731 18.4 Theory 736 18.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients 741 18.6 Stick Force – Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs 741 18.7 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 743 18.8 Design Considerations for Stability – Civil Aircraft 747 18.9 Military Aircraft – Non-Linear Effects 750 18.10 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly-by-Wire (FBW) 752 18.11 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 754 References 755 19 Materials and Structures 756 19.1 Overview 756 19.2 Introduction 756 19.3 Function of Structure – Loading 759 19.4 Basic Definitions – Structures 761 19.5 From Structure to Material 762 19.6 Basic Definitions – Materials 763 19.7 Material Properties 765 19.8 Considerations with Respect to Design 766 19.9 Structural Configuration 776 19.10 Materials – General Considerations 784 19.11 Metals 786 19.12 Wood and Fabric 788 19.13 Composite Materials 788 19.14 Structural Configurations 793 19.15 Rules of Thumb and Concept Checks 800 19.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)/Finite Element Method (FEM) 804 References 805 20 Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations 806 20.1 Overview 806 20.2 Introduction 808 20.3 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFM/A) 808 20.4 Manufacturing Practices 809 20.5 Six-Sigma Concept 811 20.6 Tolerance Relaxation at the Wetted Surface 812 20.7 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M) 814 20.8 The Design Considerations 814 20.9 ‘Design for Customer’ (A Figure of Merit) 817 20.10 Digital Manufacturing Process Management 821 References 824 21 Miscellaneous Design Considerations 825 21.1 Overview 825 21.2 Introduction 826 21.3 History of FAA – the Role of Regulation 827 21.4 Flight Test 831 21.5 Contribution by the Ground Effect on Takeoff 832 21.6 Aircraft Environmental Issues 833 21.7 Flying in Adverse Environments 838 21.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards 842 21.9 End-of-Life Disposal 842 21.10 Extended Range Twin-Engine Operation (ETOP) 843 21.11 Flight and Human Physiology 843 21.12 Some Emerging Scenarios 845 References 846 22 Aircraft Systems 847 22.1 Overview 847 22.2 Introduction 848 22.3 Environmental Issues (Noise and Engine Emission) 849 22.4 Safety Issues 851 22.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout 853 22.6 Aircraft Systems 862 22.7 Flying in Adverse Environments and Passenger Utility 874 22.8 Military Aircraft Survivability 878 References 885 23 Computational Fluid Dynamics 886 23.1 Overview 886 23.2 Introduction 887 23.3 Current Status 888 23.4 Approach Road to CFD Analyses 889 23.5 Some Case Studies 892 23.6 Hierarchy of CFD Simulation Methods 893 23.7 Summary of Discussions 896 References 897 24 Electric Aircraft 899 24.1 Overview 899 24.2 Introduction 900 24.3 Energy Storage 902 24.4 Prime Mover – Motors 905 24.5 Electric Powered Aircraft Power Train 906 24.6 Hybrid Electric Aircraft (HEA) 908 24.7 Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP) 910 24.8 Electric Aircraft Related Theory/Analyses 911 24.9 Electric Powered Aircraft Sizing 914 24.10 Discussion 916 24.11 Worked-Out Example 918 References 919 Appendix A Conversions and Important Equations 920 Appendix B International Standard Atmosphere Table Data from Hydrostatic Equations 923 Appendix C Fundamental Equations (See Table of Contents for Symbols and Nomenclature.) 926 Appendix D Some Case Studies – Aircraft Data 932 Appendix E Aerofoil Data 948 Appendix F Wheels and Tyres 959 Index 965