About the Book
This unique multidisciplinary 8-volume set focuses on the emerging issues concerning synthesis, characterization, design, manufacturing and various other aspects of composite materials from renewable materials and provides a shared platform for both researcher and industry.
The Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials comprises a set of 8 individual volumes that brings an interdisciplinary perspective to accomplish a more detailed understanding of the interplay between the synthesis, structure, characterization, processing, applications and performance of these advanced materials. The Handbook comprises 169 chapters from world renowned experts covering a multitude of natural polymers/ reinforcement/ fillers and biodegradable materials.
Volume 8 is solely focused on the Nanocomposites: Advanced Applications. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: Virgin and recycled polymers applied to advanced nanocomposites; biodegradable polymer–carbon nanotube composites for water and wastewater treatment; eco-friendly nanocomposites of chitosan with natural extracts, antimicrobial agents, and nanometals; controllable generation of renewable nanofibrils from green materials and their application in nanocomposites; nanocellulose and nanocellulose composites; poly(lactic acid) biopolymer composites and nanocomposites for biomedical and biopackaging applications; impact of nanotechnology in water treatment: carbon nanotube and graphene; nanomaterials in energy generation; sustainable green nanocomposites from bacterial bioplastics for food-packaging applications; PLA nanocomposites: a promising material for future from renewable resources; biocomposites from renewable resources: preparation and applications of chitosan–clay nanocomposites; nanomaterials: an advanced and versatile nanoadditive for kraft and paper industries; composites and nanocomposites based on polylactic acid obtaining; cellulose-containing scaffolds fabricated by electrospinning: applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery; biopolymer-based nanocomposites for environmental applications; calcium phosphate nanocomposites for biomedical and dental applications: recent developments; chitosan–metal nanocomposites: synthesis, characterization, and applications; multi-carboxyl functionalized nanocellulose/nanobentonite composite for the effective removal and recovery of metal ions; biomimetic gelatin nanocomposite as a scaffold for bone tissue repair; natural starches-blended ionotropically gelled microparticles/beads for sustained drug release and ferrogels: smart materials for biomedical and remediation applications.
Table of Contents:
Preface xxi
1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1
Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari
1.1 Introduction 1
References 12
2 Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15
Geoffrey S. Simate
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17
2.2.1 Introduction 17
2.2.2 Starch–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17
2.2.3 Cellulose–Carbon Nanotube Composites 18
2.2.4 Chitosan–Carbon Nanotubes Composites 20
2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 23
2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 23
2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 26
2.4 Concluding Remarks 27
References 27
3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35
Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martín-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernández-Navarro and Jesús Martín-Gil
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 37
3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 39
3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 39
3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 41
3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 42
3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 44
3.4.1 Biological Methods 44
3.4.2 Physical Methods 45
3.4.3 Chemical Methods 47
3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 48
3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 49
3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 50
3.6.2 Biomedical Applications 51
3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 51
3.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 51
3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 51
3.6.3 Food-Related Applications 52
3.6.4 Environmental Applications 52
3.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 52
3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 52
3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 53
3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 53
3.7 Conclusions 54
Acknowledgments 55
References 55
4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61
Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 63
4.2.1 Experimental Section 63
4.2.2 Results and Discussion 64
4.2.3 Short Summary 71
4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 72
4.3.1 Experimental Section 73
4.3.2 Results and Discussion 74
4.3.3 Short Summary 86
4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 86
4.4.1 Experiments Details 86
4.4.1 Results and Discussion 88
4.4.3 Summary 96
4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 97
4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 97
4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 100
4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 101
4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102
Acknowledgments 103
References 103
5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109
Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong
5.1 Introduction 109
5.2 Nanocellulose 110
5.3 Nanocellulose Composites 117
5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 117
5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 120
5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124
5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124
5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125
5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125
5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 127
5.3.8 Mechanical Properties 127
5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 128
5.3.10 Virus Removal 129
5.3.11 Porous Materials 129
5.4 Summary 130
Acknowledgments 131
References 131
6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135
S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 Preparations of PLA 137
6.3 Biocomposite 138
6.4 PLA Biocomposites 139
6.5 Nanocomposites 140
6.6 PLA Nanocomposites 140
6.7 Biomaterials 141
6.8 PLA Biomaterials 142
6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 143
6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 145
6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 146
6.12 Medical Implants 146
6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 147
6.13.1 Fibers 147
6.13.2 Meshes 149
6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 150
6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 151
6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 151
6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 152
6.13.7 Plates 153
6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 154
6.14 PLA Packaging Applications 155
6.15 Conclusion 156
References 157
7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171
Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 Threats to Water Treatment 173
7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 173
7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 175
7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 176
7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 178
7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 179
7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 180
7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 181
7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 185
7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 186
7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 188
7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 191
7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 192
7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 192
7.4.2 Dendrimers 193
7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 195
7.6 Conclusions 196
Acknowledgments 196
References 197
8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207
Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar
8.1 Introduction 207
8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 209
8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 209
8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 210
8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 211
8.3 In Solar Cells 211
8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 212
8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 213
8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 214
8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 215
8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 216
8.5 Energy Storage 217
8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 217
8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 217
8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 218
8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 220
8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 223
8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 223
8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 223
8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 224
8.9 Conclusion 224
References 224
9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229
Ana M. Díez-Pascual
9.1 Introduction 229
9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 231
9.2.1 Synthesis 231
9.2.2 Structure 232
9.2.3 Properties 233
9.2.4 Applications 234
9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 235
9.3.1 Structure 235
9.3.2 Properties 235
9.3.3 Synthesis 236
9.3.4 Applications 237
9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 239
9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 239
9.5.1 Morphology 239
9.5.2 Crystalline Structure 241
9.5.3 FTIR Spectra 242
9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 243
9.5.5 Thermal Stability 244
9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 245
9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 247
9.5.8 Barrier Properties 249
9.5.9 Migration Properties 250
9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 251
9.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253
References 253
10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259
Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha
10.1 Introduction 259
10.1.1 Nanotechnology 259
10.1.2 Nanocomposites 260
10.2 Biopolymers 260
10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 261
10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 261
10.3 PLA Production 262
10.3.1 PLA Properties 263
10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 263
10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 263
10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 264
10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 264
10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 264
10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 265
10.5 PLA Nanocomposites 265
10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 266
10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 268
10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 268
10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 270
10.6 Conclusion 271
References 271
11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 275
A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa
11.1 Introduction 276
11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 278
11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 283
11.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 284
11.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 286
11.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 290
11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 290
11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 291
11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 292
11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 292
11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 293
11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 294
11.7 Conclusions 295
Acknowledgment 296
References 296
12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305
Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri
12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 305
12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 306
12.1.2 Nanotechnology 306
12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 307
12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 307
12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 307
12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 308
12.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 308
12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 308
12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 309
12.4.1 Nanocellulose 309
12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 311
12.5.1 Nanokaolin 312
12.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 312
12.5.3 Nanocarbonate 313
12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 313
12.6.1 Nanozeolite 313
12.6.2 Nano TiO2 313
12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 314
12.7.1 Nanoclay 315
12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 315
12.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 315
12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 315
12.8.1 Nano ZnO 315
12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 316
12.9.1 Nanopolymer 316
12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 317
12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317
Acknowledgments 318
Conflict of Interests 318
References 318
13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327
Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu
13.1 Introduction 327
13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 329
13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 332
13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 336
13.2.3 Applications 351
13.3 Conclusions 352
Acknowledgment 353
References 353
14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361
Alex López-Córdoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes
14.1 Introduction 361
14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 362
14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 364
14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 364
14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 365
14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 366
14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 369
14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 370
14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 370
14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 373
14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 374
14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 375
14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 379
14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382
Acknowledgments 382
References 382
15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389
Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali
15.1 Introduction 389
15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 390
15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 390
15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 390
15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 391
15.2.1 Polysaccharides 391
15.2.1.1 Starch 391
15.2.1.2 Cellulose 393
15.2.1.3 Chitin 395
15.2.2 Alginate 397
15.2.2.1 Origin 397
15.2.3 Proteins 398
15.2.3.1 Albumin 398
15.2.3.2 Collagen 398
15.2.3.3 Gelatin 399
15.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 399
15.2.3.5 Keratin 400
15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 400
15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 400
15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 400
15.3.1 Direct Compounding 400
15.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 401
15.3.3 Other Techniques 402
15.3.3.1 Electrospinning 403
15.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 403
15.3.3.3 Phase Separation 403
15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 403
15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 403
15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 404
15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 404
15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 405
15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 405
15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 406
15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 406
15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 407
15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 407
15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409
References 409
16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423
Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan
16.1 Introduction 423
16.2 Hydroxyapatite 426
16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 428
16.3.1 Collagen 428
16.3.2 Chitosan 429
16.3.3 Liposomes 430
16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 430
16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 431
16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Nanocomposites 433
16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate–Collagen Nanocomposites 434
16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate–Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 436
16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate–Cellulose Nanocomposites 437
16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate–Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 437
16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 438
16.6 Concluding Remarks 443
References 444
17 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451
Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas
17.1 Introduction 451
17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 452
17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 453
17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 453
17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 454
17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 455
17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 455
17.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites 456
17.4.1 Chitosan–Zn Nanocomposite 456
17.4.2 Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 456
17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn–Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 459
17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 461
17.6 Conclusion 462
References 462
18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465
T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa
18.1 Introduction 465
18.2 Materials and Methods 468
18.2.1 Materials 468
18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 468
18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 468
18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 469
18.2.5 Desorption Experiments 470
18.2.6 Grafting Density 470
18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 470
18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 471
18.3 Results and Discussion 471
18.3.1 FTIR Analysis 471
18.3.2 XRD Analysis 473
18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and –COOH
Determination 474
18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 475
18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 475
18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 477
18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 479
18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 480
18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 481
18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 482
18.4 Conclusions 483
Acknowledgments 483
References 483
