Introduction to Bioethics

Provides comprehensive, yet concise coverage of the broad field of bioethics, dealing with the scientific, medical, social, religious, political and international concerns This book offers complete information about all aspects of bioethics and its role in our world. It tackles the concerns of bioethicists, dealing with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy. The book introduces the various modes of ethical thinking and then helps the reader to apply that thinking to issues relating to the environment, to plants and animals, and to humans. Written in an accessible manner, Introduction to Bioethics, Second Edition focuses on key issues directly relevant to those studying courses ranging from medicine through to biology and agriculture. Ethical analysis is threaded throughout each chapter and supplementary examples are included to stimulate further thought. In addition there are numerous mini-case studies to aid understanding, together with key references and further reading. Topics covered include genetic modification; GM crops, human genetics and genomics; cloning and stem cells; assisted reproduction; end of life issues; human enhancement; transhumanism and more. A concise introduction covering the whole field of bioethics Ethical analysis included throughout Mini case-studies in each chapter place ethics into specific contexts Includes exercises and commentary to further clarify ethical discussions Now fully revised, updated and re-ordered, with new chapters on Biofuels and on Synthetic Biology Introduction to Bioethics, Second Edition is primarily aimed at undergraduate students taking courses in biomedical sciences, biological sciences, and medicine. It will also be useful to anyone with an interested in the ethics of biological and biomedical science, including science journalists and reporters, who want to inform themselves about current developments.

Table of Contents:
Preface xiii About the Companion Website xv Part I Setting the Scene 1 1 Science and Society 3 1.1 What’s It All About? 3 1.2 What Is Science? 5 1.2.1 Introduction: Some History (But Not Very Much) 5 1.3 Modern Science 9 1.4 Science, Ethics and Values 10 1.4.1 Introduction 10 1.4.2 Scientific Fraud 11 1.4.3 Science and Societal Values 11 1.5 Attitudes to Science 13 1.5.1 Science and the Enlightenment 13 1.5.2 Science, Modernism, Modernity and Postmodernism 14 1.5.3 Postmodernism and ‘Pseudo?]modernism’ 16 1.5.4 Public Attitudes to Science 17 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 21 2 Ethics and Bioethics 23 2.1 Ethics and Morals 23 2.2 The Development of Ethics 25 2.2.1 Introduction 25 2.2.2 Virtuous Greeks 25 2.2.3 Ethics and Duty 26 2.2.4 What Happens If…? 27 2.2.5 Natural Law 28 2.2.6 Moral Relativism: My View Is as Good as Yours 28 2.2.7 The Revival of Virtue 29 2.2.8 Ethics and Rights 29 2.2.9 Ethics and Religion 30 2.2.10 Ethics: A Summary 30 2.3 Making Ethical Decisions 31 2.4 Medical Ethics 33 2.5 The Growth of Bioethics 34 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 36 Part II Biomedical Science and Medical Technology 39 3 Life before Birth I: The New Reproductive Technologies 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Gametes Outside the Body 42 3.3 Techniques of Artificial Reproductive Medicine 43 3.3.1 Objections to Assisted Reproduction 43 3.3.2 Donor Insemination 44 3.3.3 Gamete Donation 44 3.3.4 In Vitro Fertilisation and Variations 47 3.3.5 Reception of Oocytes from Partner 50 3.4 Embryo Testing 51 3.5 Mitochondrial Donation 51 3.6 Embryo Research 54 3.7 Rights of the Unborn Child 56 3.8 Men and Women: Do We Need Both? 56 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 58 4 Life before Birth II: Embryos, Foetuses and Associated Issues 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The Early Human Embryo 63 4.2.1 Introduction: Embryos and Persons 63 4.2.2 Status of the Embryo: Human Life Begins at Fertilisation 64 4.2.3 Status of the Embryo: The 14?]Day Approach 65 4.3 Embryo Research 66 4.4 Screening and Diagnosis 69 4.5 Reproductive Rights 71 4.5.1 Scope of Reproductive Rights 71 4.5.2 Contraception 71 4.6 Abortion: Maternal–Foetal Conflict 72 4.7 Surrogacy 77 4.8 Artificial Wombs 78 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 80 5 Cloning and Stem Cells 83 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Frogs and Sheep 84 5.3 Genes and Clones 87 5.4 It’s Not Natural: It Should Be Banned! 87 5.5 The Ethics of Human Cloning: An Overview 91 5.6 Reproductive Cloning of Non?]human Mammals 93 5.7 Unlocking the Genetic Potential of Stem Cells 96 5.7.1 Embryonic Stem Cells 96 5.7.2 Therapeutic Potential 98 5.7.3 Embryonic Stem Cells and the Ethical Status of the Early Human Embryo 98 5.7.4 Therapeutic Cloning 101 5.7.5 Adult Stem Cells 102 5.7.6 Novel Sources of Stem Cells 103 5.8 Concluding Remarks 105 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 106 6 Human Genes and Genomes 109 6.1 Some History 109 6.2 Molecular Genetics and the Human Genome Project 110 6.3 Some Thoughts on Eugenics 112 6.4 Use of Human Genetic Information 113 6.4.1 Introduction 113 6.4.2 Genetic Diagnosis 114 6.4.2.1 Postnatal Diagnosis 114 6.4.2.2 Prenatal Diagnosis 115 6.4.2.3 Pre?]implantation Genetic Diagnosis 116 6.4.2.4 Saviour Siblings: A Very Special Case 118 6.4.2.5 Where Next? 119 6.4.3 Genetic Screening 120 6.4.4 The Possibility of Genetic Discrimination 124 6.4.5 Community?]Wide Genome Sequencing 125 6.4.6 Direct?]to?]Consumer Genome Analysis 127 6.4.7 The Burden of Genetic Knowledge 129 6.4.8 A Promise Unfulfilled? 130 6.5 Genetic Modification of Humans: Fact or Fiction? 131 6.5.1 Introduction 131 6.5.2 Somatic Cell Gene Therapy 131 6.5.3 Germ?]Line Gene Therapy 133 6.5.4 Genetic Enhancement and Designer Babies 135 6.5.5 Genome Editing 138 6.6 A Gene for This and a Gene for That 140 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 141 7 Transhumanism 143 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 From Wooden Legs to Would?]Be Cyborgs 144 7.3 Mind and Matter 149 7.4 Stronger, Fitter, Faster, Cleverer: Biological Aspects of Transhumanism 152 7.4.1 Genetic Modification 152 7.4.2 Life Extension 153 7.4.3 Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Enhancement 154 7.5 Military Applications 156 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 157 8 Decisions at the End of Life: When May I Die and When Am I Dead? 159 8.1 Introduction: Four Important Examples to Inform Our Thinking 159 8.1.1 Charlotte Wyatt 159 8.1.2 Mark Sanderson 161 8.1.3 King George V 161 8.1.4 Reginald Crew 161 8.2 How Did We Get Here? 162 8.3 What Is Euthanasia? 163 8.3.1 Introduction 163 8.3.2 Euthanasia 163 8.3.3 Is Assisted Suicide Different? 164 8.4 Case for Assisted Dying 164 8.4.1 Openness 164 8.4.2 Necessity 165 8.4.3 Autonomy 165 8.5 The Arguments against Assisted Dying 166 8.5.1 Controlling Pain and Suffering 166 8.5.2 The Downside of Autonomy 166 8.6 The Debate Continues: Will the Law Ever Be Changed? 168 8.7 When Should Medical Treatment Be Withheld or Withdrawn? 172 8.7.1 Introduction 172 8.7.2 The Right to Refuse Treatment 173 8.7.3 Making Decisions for People Who Cannot Make Them for Themselves 173 8.7.4 The Liverpool Care Pathway 176 8.8 Concluding Remarks 176 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 177 Part III Biotechnology 179 9 Genetic Modification and Synthetic Biology 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Ethical Aspects of Genetic Modification 182 9.2.1 Introduction 182 9.2.2 Ethical Analysis of Genetic Modification 182 9.2.3 Risks Associated with Genetic Modification 183 9.2.4 Possible Misuse of Genetic Modification 186 9.3 Pharmaceuticals 187 9.4 Genetic Modification of Animals 190 9.4.1 Introduction 190 9.4.2 Scientific Background 190 9.4.3 Applications of Animal Genetic Modification 191 9.4.4 Animal GM and Animal Welfare Issues 192 9.5 Research Uses of Genetic Modification 193 9.6 Gene and Genome Editing 195 9.6.1 Introduction 195 9.6.2 The CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing System 196 9.7 Synthetic Biology 197 9.7.1 Introduction 197 9.7.2 What Is Synthetic Biology? 198 9.7.3 Applications of Synthetic Biology 200 9.7.4 Ethical Aspects of Synthetic Biology 201 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 202 10 Genetic Modification of Plants 205 10.1 Introduction and Definitions 205 10.2 Back to the Beginning 206 10.3 Basic Methodology 208 10.4 The Debate 209 10.4.1 Introduction 209 10.4.2 Conducting the Debate 210 10.4.3 The Key Issues 213 10.4.3.1 Intrinsic Objections 213 10.4.3.2 Risk 214 10.4.4 The Debate Continues 217 10.4.5 Genome Editing: A Special Case? 222 10.5 GM Crops: Is a Different Approach Possible? 223 10.6 Closing Comments: Consumer Choice 224 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 226 11 Genes: Some Wider Issues 229 11.1 Introduction 229 11.2 Crop GM Technology, World Trade and Global Justice 231 11.3 Gene Patenting 235 11.3.1 Gene Patents in Crop GM Technology 235 11.3.2 Gene Patents and Medical Genetics 236 11.4 Genetic Piracy 238 11.5 DNA Fingerprinting and DNA Databases 243 11.5.1 Introduction 243 11.5.2 Applications of DNA Fingerprinting 243 11.5.3 DNA Databases 245 11.6 Concluding Remarks 246 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 246 12 Biofuels and Bioenergy: Environmental and Ethical Aspects 249 12.1 Introduction 249 12.2 Biofuels: A Brief Survey 251 12.3 Biofuels: Ethical Issues 254 12.3.1 Introduction 254 12.3.2 Can Biofuels Be Produced without Affecting Food Production? 254 12.3.3 Is Growth of Biofuel Crops Sustainable? 258 12.3.4 Biofuel Production and Land Allocation 259 12.4 Concluding Comment 261 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 261 Part IV Humans and the Biosphere 263 13 Humans and Non?]human Animals 265 13.1 Introduction 265 13.2 Humankind’s Place in the Animal Kingdom 266 13.3 Human Use of Animals: An Overview 267 13.3.1 Historic and Present?]Day Perspectives 267 13.3.2 ‘Speciesism’ 270 13.4 Vivisection and the Use of Animals in Research 271 13.4.1 Definitions, Laws and Numbers 271 13.4.2 Reasons for Experimenting on Animals 272 13.4.3 All Animals Are Equal, or Are They? 274 13.5 The Ethics of Animal Research 274 13.6 Animals in Sport, Companionship, Leisure and Fashion 277 13.6.1 Sport 277 13.6.2 Companion Animals and Pets 278 13.6.3 Fashion and Fur 279 13.7 Working Animals 279 13.8 Animals for Food 280 13.9 Concluding Comments 282 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 283 14 The Environmental Crisis: Not Just about Climate 285 14.1 Introduction 285 14.2 Environmental Damage: It’s a Fivefold Problem 287 14.2.1 Introduction 287 14.2.2 Environmental Pollution 287 14.2.3 Environmental Degradation 290 14.2.4 Loss of Habitat and of Biodiversity 291 14.2.5 Over?]exploitation of Earth’s Resources 293 14.2.6 Pause for Reflection 294 14.3 Climate Change 295 14.3.1 Introduction 295 14.3.2 Sea Levels 297 14.3.3 How Much Can We Cope With? 298 14.3.4 Fuels and Energy Sources 299 14.3.5 Resilience 302 14.3.6 The Future 302 14.4 Valuing the Environment 305 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 310 15 Planet and Population 311 15.1 Introduction: The Anthropocene 311 15.2 How Many? 312 15.3 How Many Can We Feed? 313 15.3.1 Agricultural and Scientific Aspects 313 15.3.2 Social and Societal Aspects 316 15.3.3 War 317 15.4 How Many Is Too Many? 318 15.5 Water 319 15.6 Concluding Comments 321 Key References and Suggestions for Further Reading 323 Index 325

About the Author :
About the Authors John A. Bryant is Professor Emeritus of Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. Linda la Velle is Professor of Biology in Education, Institute of Education, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK, and Visiting Professor of Education, Bath Spa University, UK.