Skeletal Variation and Adaptation in Europeans: Upper Paleolithic to the Twentieth Century

Table of Contents:
List of Contributors xiii Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 Christopher B. Ruff 1.1 Study Sample 3 1.2 Osteological Measurements 5 1.3 Other Variables 8 1.4 Organization of the Book 9 References 10 2 Body Size and Shape Reconstruction 15 Markku Niskanen and Christopher B. Ruff 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Body Size and Shape Estimation 15 2.3 Materials and Methods 17 2.3.1 Estimation of Missing Elements 17 2.3.2 Statistical Procedures 19 2.4 Estimating Body Size and Shape from Skeletal Dimensions 20 2.4.1 Stature 20 2.4.2 Sitting Height and Total Lower Limb Length 22 2.4.3 Limb Segment Lengths 23 2.4.4 Body Breadths 24 2.4.5 Body Mass 25 2.5 Evaluation of Errors in Estimating Body Size and Shape from Skeletal Dimensions 26 2.5.1 Stature Estimation 26 2.5.2 Sitting Height, Lower Limb Subischial Length, and Lower Leg Length 28 2.5.3 Trunk Breadths 30 2.5.4 Body Mass Estimation 30 2.5.5 Sex and Age Effects 32 2.6 Discussion and Conclusions 33 Acknowledgments 34 References 34 3 Quantifying Skeletal Robusticity 39 Christopher B. Ruff 3.1 Cross?-Sectional Properties 39 3.2 Cross?-Section Reconstruction 40 3.3 Section Moduli 42 3.4 Standardizing for Body Size 44 References 45 4 Temporal and Geographic Variation in Body Size and Shape of Europeans from the Late Pleistocene to Recent Times 49 Markku Niskanen, Christopher B. Ruff, Brigitte Holt, Vladimir Sladek, and Margit Berner 4.1 Environmental Adaptation 49 4.2 European Population History 52 4.3 Materials and Methods 54 4.3.1 Skeletal Samples and Variables 54 4.3.2 Estimating Body Size and Shape from Skeletal Dimensions 55 4.3.3 Anthropometric Samples and Variables 56 4.3.4 Statistical and Graphical Analyses 57 4.4 Results 58 4.4.1 General Temporal Trends in Body Size and Body Proportions 58 4.4.2 Body Size and Shape of Foragers Before and After the Last Glacial Maximum 66 4.4.3 Changes Across the Mesolithic–Neolithic Transition and During the Neolithic 67 4.4.4 The Little Ice Age, the Industrial Revolution, and Very Recent Changes 67 4.4.5 Geographic Differences in Body Size and Proportions 68 4.5 Discussion 76 4.6 Conclusions 81 References 82 5 Temporal and Geographic Variation in Robusticity 91 Brigitte Holt, Erin Whittey, Markku Niskanen, Vladimir Sladek, Margit Berner, and Christopher B. Ruff 5.1 Introduction 91 5.2 Background 91 5.2.1 Limb Bone Robusticity and Subsistence Changes 91 5.2.2 Cultural and Economic Factors 92 5.2.3 Terrain 96 5.3 Materials 96 5.4 Methods 97 5.4.1 Aging and Sexing 97 5.4.2 Reconstruction of Cross?]Sectional Dimensions 97 5.4.3 Robusticity Variables 97 5.4.4 Standardizing Cross?-Sectional Dimension for Differences in Body Size 98 5.4.5 Quantification of Terrain 98 5.4.6 Categorization of Urbanization 98 5.4.7 Analysis of Robusticity 98 5.5 Results 99 5.5.1 Temporal Trends 99 5.5.1.1 Upper Limb 99 5.5.1.2 Lower Limb 107 5.5.2 Urbanization 116 5.5.4 Terrain 117 5.6 Discussion 118 5.7 Conclusions 126 Acknowledgments 127 References 127 6 Sexual Dimorphism 133 Margit Berner, Vladimir Sladek , Brigitte Holt, Markku Niskanen, and Christopher B. Ruff 6.1 Introduction 133 6.2 Materials and Methods 136 6.3 Results 137 6.3.1 Overall Variation in SD 137 6.3.2 Temporal Trends in Sexual Dimorphism 143 6.3.3 Body Size and Body Proportions 143 6.3.4 Average Strength 144 6.3.5 Cross?-Sectional Shape 145 6.3.6 Cross?-Sectional Area 146 6.3.7 Comparison of Neolithic Subsistence Groups 146 6.3.8 Urban Versus Rural 148 6.3.9 Femoro?-Humeral Strength Ratio (FZp/HZp) 148 6.4 Discussion 149 6.4.1 Body Size and Shape 153 6.4.2 Lower Limb Strength 154 6.4.3 Humerus 155 6.5 Conclusions 157 Acknowledgments 157 References 158 7 Past Human Manipulative Behavior in the European Holocene as Assessed Through Upper Limb Asymmetry 163 Vladimir Sladek, Margit Berner, Brigitte Holt, Markku Niskanen, and Christopher B. Ruff 7.1 Introduction 163 7.2 Materials and Methods 167 7.2.1 Samples 167 7.2.2 Linear Measurements and CSG Parameters 169 7.2.3 Computation of Asymmetry and Sexual Dimorphism 169 7.2.4 Statistical Techniques 171 7.3 Results 171 7.3.1 Asymmetry Variation 171 7.3.1.1 General Differences Between Structural Properties 171 7.3.1.2 Temporal Trends in Asymmetry 173 7.3.1.3 Regional Differences in Asymmetry 190 7.3.2 Right Versus Left Dominance 194 7.3.3 Variation in Right and Left Humeral CSG 196 7.4 Discussion 201 7.5 Summary and Conclusions 203 Acknowledgments 204 References 204 8 Britain 209 Christopher B. Ruff, Evan Garofalo, and Sirpa Niinimaki 8.1 Introduction 209 8.2 Body Size and Shape 213 8.2.1 Body Size 213 8.2.2 Body Shape 218 8.2.3 Comparisons to other Europeans 220 8.3 Cross?-Sectional Properties 221 8.3.1 Bone Strength 221 8.3.2 Percentage Cortical Area 225 8.3.3 Comparisons to other Europeans 228 8.3.4 The ‘Amesbury Archer’ 229 8.4 Discussion 233 8.4.1 Body Size and Shape 233 8.4.2 Bone Structure 235 8.5 Conclusions 237 Acknowledgments 237 References 237 9 France and Italy 241 Brigitte Holt, Erin Whittey, and Dannielle Tompkins 9.1 Introduction 241 9.2 Samples 241 9.3 Methods 244 9.3.1 Body Shape 244 9.3.2 Robusticity 244 9.3.3 Statistical Analysis 244 9.4 Results 244 9.4.1 Body Size and Shape 244 9.4.1.1 Temporal Changes Within the FI Group 244 9.4.1.2 Body Size and Shape Sexual Dimorphism 248 9.4.1.3 Impact of urbanization 249 9.4.1.4 Comparisons with Europe 251 9.5 Long Bone Robusticity 252 9.5.1 Temporal Trends 252 9.5.1.1 Upper Limb 252 9.5.1.2 Lower Limb 255 9.5.2 Sexual Dimorphism 260 9.5.3 Bilateral Asymmetry 261 9.5.4 Rural/Urban Status 263 9.5.5 Terrain 263 9.5.6 Comparisons with Europe 263 9.5.6.1 Upper Limb 263 9.5.6.2 Lower Limb 265 9.6 Discussion 270 9.7 Conclusions 276 Acknowledgments 276 References 277 10 Iberia 281 Christopher B. Ruff and Heather Garvin 10.1 Introduction 281 10.2 Body Size and Shape 286 10.2.1 Body Size 286 10.2.2 Body Shape 290 10.2.3 Comparisons to Other Europeans 293 10.3 Cross?-Sectional Properties 294 10.3.1 Bone Strength 294 10.3.2 Percentage Cortical Area 300 10.3.3 Comparisons to Other Europeans 304 10.4 Discussion 305 10.4.1 Body Size and Shape 305 10.4.2 Bone Structure 307 10.5 Conclusions 310 Acknowledgments 311 References 311 11 Central European Human Postcranial Variation 315 Vladimir Sladek, Margit Berner, Eliška Makajevova, Petr Veleminsky, Martin Hora, and Christopher B. Ruff 11.1 Introduction 315 11.1.1 Central Europe: Geography and Paleoenvironment 315 11.1.2 Central Europe: Archaeological Context 316 11.2 Materials and Methods 319 11.2.1 Sample 319 11.2.2 Measurements and Variables 321 11.2.3 Statistical Techniques 322 11.3 Results 323 11.3.1 Body Size and Shape Variation 323 11.3.1.1 Stature, Body Mass, and Body Mass Index 323 11.3.1.2 Changes in Body Size Between Central European Holocene and Living Humans 323 11.3.1.3 Relative bi?-iliac breadth 326 11.3.1.4 Crural and Brachial Indices 326 11.3.1.5 Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size and Shape 326 11.3.2 Mobility and Sedentism 327 11.3.2.1 Femoral and Tibial Cortical Area and Bending Strength 327 11.3.2.2 Femoral and Tibial Shape Ratio (Zx/Zy) 330 11.3.2.3 Sexual Dimorphism in Lower Limb CSG Properties 330 11.3.3 Manipulative Behavior Changes 330 11.3.3.1 Humeral Cortical Area 330 11.3.3.2 Humeral Bending Strength 331 11.3.3.3 Humeral Directional Asymmetry 332 11.3.3.4 Sexual Dimorphism in Humeral CSG Properties 335 11.3.4 Comparison of Central European Body Size, Shape, and CSG Properties to European Holocene 335 11.4 Discussion 337 11.4.1 Central European UP and Mesolithic 337 11.4.2 Adoption of Agriculture 340 11.4.3 Secondary Products Revolution 341 11.4.4 Origin of Metallurgy 343 11.4.5 The Avars and Nomadic Subsistence in Central Europe 343 11.4.6 The Transition to the Archaic State in the Central Europe 344 11.4.7 Comparison to Living Central Europeans and Impact of Secular Trend 345 11.5 Conclusions 346 Acknowledgments 347 References 347 12 Scandinavia and Finland 355 Markku Niskanen, Heli Maijanen, Juho?]Antti Junno, Sirpa Niinimaki, Anna?]Kaisa Salmi, Rosa Vilkama, Tiina Vare, Kati Salo, Anna Kjellstrom, and Petra Molnar 12.1 Introduction to Region, Samples, and Techniques 355 12.1.1 Region and its Population History 355 12.1.2 Samples 357 12.1.3 Technique Summary 360 12.2 Body Size and Body Shape 361 12.2.1 Temporal Trends 361 12.2.2 Comparison with pan?]European 371 12.2.3 Other Comparisons 374 12.3 Cross?-Sectional Properties 377 12.3.1 Temporal Trends 377 12.3.2 Comparisons with pan?-European 384 12.3.3 Other Comparisons 385 12.4 Discussion 388 12.4.1 Body Size and Body Shape 388 12.4.2 Cross?-Sectional Properties 390 12.5 Conclusions 391 Acknowledgments 391 References 392 13 The Balkans 397 Christopher Ruff and Brigitte Holt 13.1 Introduction 397 13.2 Body Size and Shape 399 13.2.1 Schela Cladovei 399 13.2.2 Mistihalj 402 13.3 Cross?-Sectional Properties 402 13.3.1 Schela Cladovei 402 13.3.2 Mistihalj 407 13.4 Discussion 408 13.4.1 Body Size and Shape 408 13.4.2 Bone Structure 411 13.5 Conclusions 414 Acknowledgments 415 References 415 14 Conclusions 419 Christopher B. Ruff, Brigitte Holt, Markku Niskanen, Vladimir Sladek, and Margit Berner 14.1 Body Size and Shape 419 14.2 Long Bone Strength 421 14.3 Other Bone Structural Observations 423 References 424 Appendix 1: Study Samples 427 References 436 Appendix 2.1 443 Notes and Sources 446 References 447 Appendix 2.2 449 Appendix 3.1 451 References 452 Appendix 3.2 455 References 461 Appendix 4 463 Appendix 5 471 Index

About the Author :
About the Editor Christopher B. Ruff is Director of the Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA. Dr. Ruff has published widely in the fields of human osteology, bioarchaeology, and paleontology, and has served as editor of the American Journal of Physical Anthropology and the Yearbook of Physical Anthropology.