The development of electric power systems has been made up of incremental innovations from the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century. The creation of deregulated electricity markets has brought about an emerging paradigm in which the relationships between producers, power system operators and consumers have changed enormously compared to the monopolistic case. The scope of this book is to provide fundamental concepts of the physics and operation of transmission and distribution lines, which is the content of Part 1, followed by the models and tools for the description and simulation of large electrical grids for steady state and transient operation. These advanced tools allow the physics and technology of power systems to be described and the algorithms of Ybus and Zbus matrices to be built for various studies such as short-circuit studies and load flow or transient phenomena analysis.
Part 3 deals with the new organization concepts in the frame of deregulated markets. In this part the restructuring of the power industry is presented where various actors interact together through market places or bilateral contracts. In addition, the operation of the power grids under this deregulated context is detailed and the relationships between power system operators and market actors (energy producers and providers, traders, etc.) is explained with several examples. The ancillary services, congestion management and grid access concepts are also described.
A large number of exercises and problems disseminated throughout the book with solutions at the end enable the reader to check his understanding of the content at any time.
Table of Contents:
Foreword xvii
Introduction xix
Part 1. Transmission Lines and Electric Power Networks 1
Chapter 1. The Two Paradigms of the World Electrical Power System 3
1.1. Introduction 3
1.2. The historical paradigm 5
1.4. Distributed generation 15
Chapter 2. Production of Electrical Energy 17
Chapter 3. General Information on Electrical Power Networks 21
3.1. Transmission and distribution systems 21
3.2. Voltages 23
3.3. Power transfer 25
Chapter 4. Network Architecture 27
4.1. Network architecture: mesh or radial layout 27
4.2. Line and cable technologies 33
4.3. Network components 40
4.4. Short-circuit power 51
4.5. Real and reactive power in sinusoidal situations 55
Chapter 5. Operation of Electric Lines 59
5.1 Operational equations (physical phenomena) 59
5.2. Modeling of lines under steady-state conditions 75
5.3. Exercises 108
Chapter 6. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission 113
6.1. Advantages, disadvantages and fields of application 114
6.2. HVDC link between two points 115
6.3. Operating equations 123
Chapter 7. Three-phase Transmission Lines 127
7.1. Line characteristics 127
7.2. Equations of three-phase lines 134
7.3. Modes of propagation 136
7.4. Exercise No. 11: calculation of parameters of three-phase lines 147
Chapter 8. Electrical Transients in Transmission 149
8.1. Transient analysis using Laplace transform 150
8.2. Method of traveling waves 164
Part 2. Analysis Methods of Electrical Power Systems 173
Chapter 9. Functions of Electrical Energy Systems 175
9.1. Introduction 175
9.2. Hierarchy and representation of electrical power systems 179
Chapter 10. Network Representation 183
10.1. Graphical and topological description of a network 183
10.2. Network global modeling: the CIM model 186
10.3. Matrix representation of networks 187
Chapter 11. Formation of Network Matrices 207
11.1. Formation of the Ybus matrix 208
11.2. Formation of the Zbus matrix 210
11.3. Exercises 220
Chapter 12. Load Flow Calculations 223
12.1. Objectives 223
12.2. Model of network elements 224
12.3. Problem formulation 226
12.4. Solution methods 228
12.5. Software tools for load flow analysis 241
12.6. Principle of numerical iterative methods 241
12.7 Exercises 244
Chapter 13. Transient Analysis Methods 249
13.1. Interest in transient analysis 249
13.2. Transient network analyzer 251
13.3. The method of traveling waves 253
13.4. Conclusions 265
13.5. Exercises 266
Chapter 14. Fault Current Calculations 271
14.1. Definition 271
14.2. Effects of short-circuit conditions 271
14.3. Common causes of faults 272
14.4. Importance of short-circuit current calculations 273
14.5. Types of short circuits 273
14.6. Notion of short-circuit power 275
14.7. Polyphase balanced and unbalanced systems 276
14.8. Generalization of fault calculation in complex networks 296
14.9. Three-phase symmetrical fault current calculations 296
14.10. Symmetrical fault current: systematic approach 298
14.11. Expression of short-circuit current and short-circuit power 302
14.12. Asymmetrical fault current calculations 303
14.13 Exercises 319
Chapter 15. Stability Analysis of Power Systems 323
15.1. Objective 323
15.2. Introduction 323
15.3. Categories and classes of stability problems 324
15.4. The equation of motion 326
15.5. Simplified model of a synchronous machine 331
15.6. Power-angle considerations at steady state 333
15.7. Case of small perturbations 337
15.8. Transient stability 339
15.9. Application of equal-area criteria 343
15.10. Case of a multi-machine system 351
15.11 Exercise No. 22: stability and critical fault clearing time 352
Part 3. Management of Electricity Networks in a Competitive Environment 355
Chapter 16. Basic Electrical System 357
16.1. Introduction 357
16.2. Means of power generation 361
16.3. Transmission network 372
16.4. Distribution network 375
16.5. Consumption 377
16.6. System monitoring 381
16.7. Need for network interconnections 385
16.8. Conclusion 390
Chapter 17. Liberalization of Energy Markets 391
17.1. Introduction 391
17.2. Main electrical system features 393
17.3. Case prior to liberalization: monopoly regime 393
17.4. Liberalization of energy markets: reasons for change 396
17.5. Guidelines and regulations 399
17.6. Liberalization of energy markets: the concept of unbundling 401
17.7. Liberalization of energy markets: industrial movement 405
17.8. Liberalization of energy markets: different market segments and players 405
17.9. Conclusion 418
Chapter 18. Description and Models of Energy Markets 419
18.1. Introduction 419
18.2. Organized market model type 420
18.3. Bilateral market model 424
18.4. Other models 424
18.5. Different markets 427
18.6. Interaction and coupling of markets 430
18.7. Market adjustment 431
18.8. Responsibilities, different markets and interactions 433
18.9. Treatment of losses 433
18.10. Factors influencing prices and their variation 436
18.11. Conclusion 441
Chapter 19. Ancillary Services 443
19.1. Introduction 443
19.2. Some definitions 444
19.3. Frequency adjustment and control 445
19.4. Voltage control 451
19.5. System recovery 455
19.6. Management of ancillary services 455
19.7. Market-based mechanisms for ancillary services 456
19.8. Cost allocation of ancillary services 461
19.9. Example of cost of ancillary services 461
19.10. Conclusion 461
Chapter 20. Available Transmission Capability (ATC) 465
20.1. Introduction 465
20.2. Calculation of maximum power transfer capabilities 467
20.3. Directional aspects and time line in calculating ATC 474
20.4. Availability of information on ATC to market participants 475
20.5. Mechanisms for allocating cross-border capacities 476
20.6. Conclusion 477
Chapter 21. Congestion Management 479
21.1. Introduction 479
21.2. Congestion phenomenon in transmission networks 480
21.3. Factors influencing congestion 481
21.4. Congestion and the market 483
21.5. Technical resolution of congestion 485
21.6. Principle of nodal pricing 486
21.7. Principle of market splitting and zonal pricing 488
21.8. Case of a bilateral market 490
21.9. Case of re-dispatching without taking into account balance constraints of SCs 494
21.10. General formulation of the re-dispatching problem 495
21.11. Case of pool based on the calculation of nodal marginal prices 498
21.12. Hedging the risk of congestion cost 500
21.13. Conclusion 501
Chapter 22. Network Access and Charges 503
22.1. Introduction 503
22.2. Main costs and expenses of electricity transmission 505
22.3. Tariff objectives for electricity transmission 505
22.4. Methods of determining costs and price setting 506
22.5. Some regulation aspects of cost allocation 515
22.6. French example: principles of tariffs on the public transmission system 517
22.7. Tariff for network access in Europe 521
22.8. Conclusion 521
Part 4. Exercise Solutions 525
Chapter 23. Exercise Solutions 527
23.1. Exercise No. 1: per-unit system 527
23.2. Exercise No. 2: parameters of single-phase line 532
23.3. Exercise No. 3: power transfer 541
23.4. Exercise No. 4 550
23.5. Exercise No. 5 554
23.6. Exercise No. 6: lossless long line 559
23.7. Exercise No. 7: long three-phase line with losses 570
23.8. Exercise No. 8: single-phase long line 577
23.9. Exercise No. 9: series compensation of long lines 587
23.10. Exercise No. 10: parameters of a single conductor 593
23.11. Exercise No. 11: calculation of parameters of three-phase lines 597
23.12. Exercise No. 12: construction of Zbus matrix 607
23.13. Exercise No. 13: construction of network matrices 612
23.14. Exercise No. 14: load flow calculations 617
23.15. Exercise No. 15: power flow 630
23.16. Exercise No. 16: matrices and load flow 630
23.17. Exercise No. 17: transient analysis of a line 631
23.18. Exercise No. 18: matrices and transient analysis 632
23.19. Exercise No. 19: transfer analysis under lightning strike 632
23.20. Exercise No. 20: fault current in a simple network 633
23.21. Exercise No. 21: symmetrical fault on a network 648
23.22 Exercise No. 22: stability and critical fault clearing time 659
References 665
Index 671
About the Author :
Nourredine Hadjsaïd, Grenoble INP, France.
Jean-Claude Sabonnadière, INPG, Grenoble, France.
