Designing Effective Instruction

This is a valuable resource that provides instructional designers with the practical skills they need to meet the challenges of creating effective and efficient educational materials. Updated and revised, the Seventh Edition focuses on a consistent approach to instructional design by reflecting the trends both in practice and in research. The basics of instructional design are covered, helping students develop a solid foundation in the design process so that they can use the skills in the content of multi-media, classroom, and distance-education sttings. Designing Effective Instruction, 7th Edition incorporates both behavioral and cognitive approaches into the design model that reflects design decisions based on research.

Table of Contents:
Preface ix About the Authors xiii Chapter One Introduction to the Ins tructional Design Process Xxvi Getting Started xxvi Why Instructional Design? 2 Why Do Instructional Design? 2 What Are the Benefits of Instructional Design? 3 Applying the Process to Both Academic Education and Training Programs 4 What Is Instructional Design? 6 Education versus Training 8 Instructional Design and Human Performance Technology 8 Contexts for Instructional Design 9 Premises Underlying the Instructional Design Process 10 Overview of Our Design Model 14 Instructional Problems 15 Learner and Context 15 Task Analysis 15 Instructional Objectives 15 Content Sequencing 15 Instructional Strategies 16 Designing the Message 16 Development of the Instruction 16 Evaluation Instruments 16 Ongoing Processes 18 Who’s Who in the Instructional Design Process 19 Instructional Designer 19 Subject-Matter Expert (SME) 19 Evaluator 19 Answering the Critics 20 Questions…Questions…Questions 22 Summary 22 The ID Process 23 Application 23 Answers 23 References 24 Chapter Two Identifying the Need for Instruction 26 Getting Started 26 Is Instruction the Answer? 28 Needs Assessment 29 Types of Needs and Data Sources 31 Conducting a Needs Assessment 34 Example Needs Assessment Plan 37 Goal Analysis 38 Six Steps of Goal Analysis 39 Comparing Goal Analysis and Needs Assessment 41 Performance Assessment 41 Summary 43 The ID Process 44 Application 44 Answers 45 Quality Management 46 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 46 References 47 Chapter Three Learner and Contextual Analysis 50 Getting Started 50 Types of Learner Characteristics 52 General Characteristics 53 Specific Entry Characteristics 53 Learning Styles 54 Academic Information 55 Personal and Social Characteristics 55 Culturally Diverse Learners 56 Learners with Disabilities 57 Adult Learners 58 Contextual Analysis 61 Types of Context 61 Conducting a Contextual Analysis 63 Summary 65 The ID Process 65 Application 66 Answers 66 Quality Management 66 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 66 References 68 Chapter Four Task Analysis 72 Getting Started 72 Task Analysis 74 Preparing to Conduct a Task Analysis 75 Content Structures 75 Topic Analysis 77 Analyzing a Topic 78 Procedural Analysis 80 Going Beyond Procedural Analysis 84 The Critical Incident Method 87 Conducting a Task Analysis 89 Serving as Your Own SME 89 Techniques for Gathering Data 89 Recording Methods 90 Instructional Goals 95 Summary 91 The ID Process 91 Application 92 Answer 92 Quality Management 94 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 95 References 97 Chapter Five Instructional Objectives 100 Getting Started 100 Function of Objectives 100 Three Objective Domains 102 Cognitive Domain 102 Psychomotor Domain 103 Affective Domain 104 Interrelation of Domains 104 Developing Instructional Objectives 105 The Basis for Objectives 105 Approaches to Objectives 106 Writing Objectives in the Cognitive Domain 106 Behavioral Objectives 106 Optional Parts 107 Cognitive Objectives 109 Writing Objectives for the Psychomotor Domain 112 Writing Objectives for the Affective Domain 113 Classifying Objectives 114 Expanded Performance–Content Matrix Model 114 Pros and Cons of Writing Objectives 116 Summary 117 The ID Process 117 Application 118 Answers 118 Quality Management 119 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 119 References 121 Chapter Six Designing the Instruction: Sequencing 122 Getting Started 122 The Posner and Strike Sequencing Schemes 124 Learning-Related Sequencing 124 World-Related Sequencing 126 Concept-Related Sequencing 127 Elaboration Theory Sequencing 130 Content Expertise Sequencing 130 Task Expertise Sequencing 130 From Objectives to Sequencing 130 Summary 131 The ID Process 131 Application 131 Answers 132 Quality Management 132 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 132 References 134 Chapter Seven Designing the Instruction: Strategies 136 Getting Started 136 Why Instructional Strategies? 138 Designing an Instructional Strategy 138 Foundations for the Prescriptions 138 Generative Strategies 139 Prescriptions for Instructional Strategies 140 Prescriptions for Teaching Facts 142 Prescriptions for Teaching Concepts 144 Prescriptions for Teaching Principles and Rules 145 Prescriptions for Teaching Procedures 147 Prescriptions for Teaching Interpersonal Skills 150 Prescriptions for Teaching Attitudes 151 Summary 152 The ID Process 153 Applications 153 Answers 154 Quality Management 154 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 155 References 157 Chapter Eight Designing the Instructional Message 160 Getting Started 160 Preinstructional Strategies 162 Pretests 163 Objectives 163 Overviews 164 Advance Organizers 165 Message Design for Text 166 Signaling the Text’s Schema 166 Explicit Signals 168 Typographical Signals 168 Pictures and Graphics in Instruction 172 Effectiveness 172 The Function of Pictures 174 Using Pictures in Instruction 178 Summary 179 The ID Process 179 Applications 179 Answers 180 Quality Management 180 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 181 References 183 Chapter Nine Developing Instructional Materials 186 Getting Started 186 Starting the Development of the Instruction 188 Staying Focused 188 Heuristics for Developing Instruction 189 Make It Concrete 190 Control the Step Size 191 Use Appropriate Pacing 192 Maintain Consistency 192 Use Cues 193 Putting Pen to Paper or Fingers to Keyboard 193 Preinstructional Strategy 193 Initial Presentation 194 Generative Strategy 194 Transitions 194 Cognitive Load 195 Group Presentations 203 Strengths 203 Limitations 203 Applications 204 Guidelines for Effective Lecturing 204 Distance Education 206 Self-Paced Learning 208 Strengths 209 Limitations 209 Guidelines for Effective Learning 210 Design Checklist 210 Changing Roles 211 Small-Group Formats 211 Strengths 211 Limitations 212 Formats 212 Summary 214 The ID Process 215 Application 216 Answer 216 Quality Management 216 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 216 References 217 Chapter Ten Design Considerations for Technology-Based Instruction 222 Getting Started 222 Affordances of Technology-Based Instruction 224 Individualized Computer- and Web-Based Instruction 224 Drill-and-Practice 225 Tutorials 225 Simulations 226 Games 226 Hypermedia 227 Design Considerations for Individualized Computer and Web-Based Instruction 227 Interface Design 228 Learner Control 228 Feedback 230 Remediation 232 Designing Interactions 232 Using Multimedia 236 Design Considerations for Group-Based Distance Instruction 240 An Individualized Approach to Distance Instruction 240 A Group Approach to Distance Instruction 240 Avoiding the Shovelware Trap 241 Summary 242 The ID Process 242 Application 242 Answer 243 Quality Management 243 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 243 References 245 Chapter Eleven the Many Faces Of Evaluation 250 Getting Started 250 Purposes of Evaluation 252 Formative Evaluation 252 Summative Evaluation 255 Confirmative Evaluation 256 Relationship Among Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluations 256 The Role of Instructional Objectives 257 Multiple Data Sources Equal Increased Information 257 Processes and Products 257 Time of Testing 258 When to Evaluate 258 Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives 258 Matching Measures to Objectives 259 Suggested Measures for Alternative Outcomes 259 Validity and Reliability of Tests 261 Validity 261 Reliability 262 Relationship Between Validity and Reliability 265 Standards of Achievement 265 Relative Standards 265 Absolute Standards 266 Measurement Issues 267 Standards Versus Conventional Measurement 267 Student Self-Evaluation 269 Pretesting 269 Testing for Prerequisites 269 Testing for Improvement in Performance 270 Benefits of Pretesting 270 Whether or Not to Pretest 272 Summary 272 The ID Process 273 Application 274 Answer 274 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 275 References 276 Chapter Twelve Developing Evaluation Instruments 278 Getting Started 278 Testing Knowledge 280 The Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives 280 Objective Tests 281 Constructed-Response Tests 287 Testing Skills and Behavior 293 Preliminary Considerations 295 Types of Skill/Behavior Assessments 296 Attitudes 305 Two Uses of Attitude Assessment 305 Observation/Anecdotal Records 306 Assessment of Behavior 306 Questionnaire/Survey 307 Interview 308 Summary 310 The ID Process 310 Applications 311 Answers 311 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 311 References 314 Chapter Thirteen Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative and Summative Evaluations 316 Getting Started 316 A Basic Model for Formative Evaluation 318 Purposes 318 Audience 319 Issues 319 Resources 319 Evidence 320 Data-Gathering Techniques 320 Analysis 321 Reporting 322 Types of Formative Evaluation 323 Connoisseur-Based Studies 323 Decision-Oriented Studies 324 Objectives-Based Studies 325 Public Relations–Inspired Studies 325 Constructivist-Oriented Process 325 Stages of Formative Evaluation 326 Summative Evaluation: Determining Program Outcomes 327 Evaluation Versus Research 327 Program Effectiveness 328 Summative Evaluation Methods 330 Program Efficiency 331 Learner Time Required 331 Faculty and Staff Required 332 Use of Facilities 332 Program Costs 333 Developmental Costs 333 Operational Costs 334 Instructional Cost Index 335 Confirmative Evaluation: Determining Outcomes Over Time 336 Approaches to Confirmative Evaluation 337 Educational Programs 338 Training Programs 339 Reporting Results of Summative and Confirmative Evaluations 340 Summary 341 The ID Process 342 Application 343 Answer 343 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 344 References 345 Chapter Fourteen Learning Theory and Instructional Theory 348 Getting Started 348 Introduction 350 Learning Theory 351 Instructional Theory 351 Instructional Design Model 352 Applications of Instructional Theories and Models 352 Types of Learning Theory 353 Cognitive Theory 357 Summary 364 The ID Process 365 Application 367 Answer 368 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 368 References 369 Chapter Fifteen Planning For Instructional Implementation 372 Getting Started 372 Planned Change 372 Innovation 374 Communication 375 Time 375 Social System 376 The CLER Model 376 Configuration 377 Linkages 378 Environment 378 Resources 378 Planning the Implementation with the CLER Model 381 Configuration 381 Linkages 381 Environment 381 Resources 382 Analysis of the Situation 382 Implementation Plan 382 Tichy’s TPC (Technical, Political, Cultural) Framework 383 Developmental Stages and Information Decision Process Models 383 Implementation Decisions 384 Program Promotion 384 Instructional Delivery 385 Materials 386 Instructors 387 Scheduling 387 Instructor Training 387 Role of Supervisors 387 Summary 388 The ID Process 388 Application 388 Answers 389 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 389 References 390 FOR SCREEN VIEWING IN BPA ONLY Contents xxv Chapter Sixteen Instructional Design Project Management 392 Getting Started 392 Project Management 394 Project Planning 394 Management Activities 398 Completing the Project 399 Project Agreement and Proposal Preparation 400 Instructional Design Shortcuts 405 Flexibility of the Instructional Design Process 405 Instructional Design in Organizations 405 Purposes and Role 406 Placement within the Organization 406 Budgetary Support 407 Working with the Subject-Matter Expert and Consultants 407 The Subject-Matter Expert in Different Roles 408 Working with Other Consultants and Team Members 409 Legal Considerations in ID Project Management 410 Contracts 410 State and Federal Mandates 410 Common Legal Problems in Training 410 Summary 412 The ID Process 412 Application 413 Answers 413 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 413 References 414 APPENDIX A Sample Instructional Design Documentation 415 APPENDIX B A Sample Instructional Unit 425 Glossary 435 Index 439

About the Author :
Gary R. Morrison is the author of Designing Effective Instruction, 7th Edition, published by Wiley. Steven M. Ross is the author of Designing Effective Instruction, 7th Edition, published by Wiley.