Process Plant Equipment: Operation, Control, and Reliability

“Process Plant Equipment Book is another great publication from Wiley as a reference book for final year students as well as those who will work or are working in chemical production plants and refinery…” -Associate Prof. Dr. Ramli Mat, Deputy Dean (Academic), Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

“…give[s] readers access to both fundamental information on process plant equipment and to practical ideas, best practices and experiences of highly successful engineers from around the world… The book is illustrated throughout with numerous black & white photos and diagrams and also contains case studies demonstrating how actual process plants have implemented the tools and techniques discussed in the book. An extensive list of references enables readers to explore each individual topic in greater depth…” –Stainless Steel World and Valve World, November 2012

Discover how to optimize process plant equipment, from selection to operation to troubleshooting

From energy to pharmaceuticals to food, the world depends on processing plants to manufacture the products that enable people to survive and flourish. With this book as their guide, readers have the information and practical guidelines needed to select, operate, maintain, control, and troubleshoot process plant equipment so that it is efficient, cost-effective, and reliable throughout its lifetime. Following the authors' careful explanations and instructions, readers will find that they are better able to reduce downtime and unscheduled shutdowns, streamline operations, and maximize the service life of processing equipment.

Process Plant Equipment: Operation, Control, and Reliability is divided into three sections:

• Section One: Process Equipment Operations covers such key equipment as valves, pumps, cooling towers, conveyors, and storage tanks
• Section Two: Process Plant Reliability sets forth a variety of tested and proven tools and methods to assess and ensure the reliability and mechanical integrity of process equipment, including failure analysis, Fitness-for-Service assessment, engineering economics for chemical processes, and process component function and performance criteria
• Section Three: Process Measurement, Control, and Modeling examines flow meters, process control, and process modeling and simulation

Throughout the book, numerous photos and diagrams illustrate the operation and control of key process equipment. There are also case studies demonstrating how actual process plants have implemented the tools and techniques discussed in the book. At the end of each chapter, an extensive list of references enables readers to explore each individual topic in greater depth.

In summary, this text offers students, process engineers, and plant managers the expertise and technical support needed to streamline and optimize the operation of process plant equipment, from its initial selection to operations to troubleshooting.

Contributors xxiii

Preface xxiv

SECTION I PROCESS EQUIPMENT OPERATION

1 Introduction 3
Michael D. Holloway

2 Valves 9
Ali Ahammad Shoukat Choudhury, Chikezie Nwaoha, and Sharad Vishwasrao

2.1 Types of Control Valves, 10

2.2 Control Valve Actuators, 12

2.3 Control Valve Sizing and Selection, 13

2.4 Common Problems of Control Valves, 15

2.5 Diagnosing Control Valve Problems, 19

2.6 Control Valve Reliability and Selection, 20

2.7 Control Valve Maintenance, 22

2.8 Control Valve Troubleshooting, 24

References, 24

3 Pumps 27
Craig Redmond

3.1 Types of Pumps, 28

3.2 Pump Applications, 34

3.3 Pump Sizing and Selection, 37

3.4 Pump Maintenance, 40

3.5 Pump Troubleshooting, 44

4 Pipes 45
Shaohui Jia

4.1 Types of Pipes, 45

4.2 Pipe Selection, 46

4.3 Pipeline Network Design and Optimization, 48

4.4 Pipeline Failure, 50

4.5 Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection, 54

4.6 Pipe Maintenance, 58

4.7 Pipe Troubleshooting, 60

References, 61

5 Cooling Towers 63
Zaki Yamani Zakaria and Chikezie Nwaoha

5.1 Cooling Tower Operation, 63

5.2 Types of Cooling Towers, 69

5.3 Common Problems of Cooling Towers, 74

5.4 Measuring Cooling Tower Performance, 75

5.5 Cooling Tower Maintenance, 77

References, 79

6 Filters and Membranes 81
Flora Tong and Chikezie Nwaoha

6.1 Types of Filters, 81

6.2 Mechanisms of Filtration, 87

6.3 Filter Selection, 87

6.4 Particle-Size Measurement Techniques, 88

6.5 Filter Location, 89

6.6 Membrane Filtration, 89

6.7 Filter Maintenance, 103

References, 104

7 Sealing Devices 107
Matt Tones and Jim Drago

7.1 Gaskets, 107

7.2 Compression Packings, 125

7.3 Mechanical Seals, 131

7.4 Expansion Joints, 147

7.5 General Sealing Device Selection, 157

References, 161

8 Steam Traps 163
Jacob E. Uche and Chikezie Nwaoha

8.1 Steam Trap Operation, 163

8.2 Types of Steam Traps, 164

8.3 Steam Trap Installation, 172

8.4 Steam Trap Checking, 172

8.5 Common Problems of Steam Traps, 175

8.6 Steam Trap Selection, 176

8.7 Steam Trap Applications, 178

8.8 Steam Trap Sizing, 178

8.9 Steam Trap Maintenance, 181

References, 181

9 Process Compressors 183
N. Sitaram and Chikezie Nwaoha

9.1 Types of Compressors, 183

9.2 Continuous Compression Compressors, 184

9.3 Intermittent Compression Compressors, 186

9.4 Centrifugal Compressors, 189

9.5 Reciprocating Piston Compressors, 202

9.6 Compressor Troubleshooting, 209

References, 210

Further Reading, 211

10 Conveyors 213
Okenna Obi-Njoku

10.1 Industrial Use of Conveyors, 213

10.2 Types of Conveyors, 214

10.3 Conveyor Selection, 221

10.4 Conveyor Safety, 221

10.5 Conveyor Maintenance, 222

10.6 Summary, 222

References, 223

11 Storage Tanks 225
Marcello Ferrara and Chikezie Nwaoha

11.1 Types of Storage Tanks, 225

11.2 Storage Tank Classification, 227

11.3 Construction Materials, 227

11.4 Common Problems of Storage Tanks, 229

11.5 Storage Tank Maintenance, 233

11.6 Tank Appurtenances, 241

11.7 Storage Tank Maintenance, 243

References, 244

12 Mixers 245
Jayesh Ramesh Tekchandaney

12.1 Mixing Concepts: Theory and Practice, 246

12.2 Fluid Mixing, 248

12.3 Solid Blending, 264

12.4 Mixing High-Viscosity Materials and Pastes, 274

12.5 Mechanical Components in Mixing Equipment, 284

References, 295

13 Boilers 297
Celestine C. G. Nwankwo

13.1 Types of Boilers, 298

13.2 Boiler Accessories, 303

13.3 Boiler Selection, 305

13.4 Common Problems of Boilers, 306

13.5 Boiler Failure Analysis and Welding Defects, 308

13.6 Boiler Maintenance, 313

13.7 Boiler Troubleshooting, 319

13.8 Boiler Chemicals, 321

13.9 Boiler Efficiency and Combustion, 325

References, 327

Further Reading, 328

SECTION II PROCESS PLANT RELIABILITY

14 Engineering Economics for Chemical Processes 331
Alberto R. Betancourt-Torcat, L. A. Ricardez-Sandoval, and Ali Elkamel

14.1 Time Value of Money, 331

14.2 Cash Flow Analysis, 333

14.3 Profitability Analysis, 336

14.4 Cost Estimation and Project Evaluation, 340

References, 353

15 Process Component Function and Performance Criteria 355
Robert Free

15.1 Material Classification, 355

15.2 General Physical Quantities and Considerations, 356

15.3 Material Transfer and Conveyance Equipment, 366

15.4 Conveyors, 367

15.5 Pumps, 394

15.6 Valves, 400

15.7 Pipes, 405

15.8 Conclusions, 410

References, 410

Corporation Web Sites, 411

16 Failure Analysis and Interpretation of Components 413
Michael D. Holloway

16.1 Assessing the Situation, 413

16.2 Failure Defined, 414

16.3 Taking Advantage of Failure, 415

16.4 Sources of Failure, 416

16.5 Failure of Materials and of Machines, 416

16.6 Types of Forces, 417

16.7 Strength, 418

16.8 Creep (Deformation), 419

16.9 Fatigue (Material), 420

16.10 Wear, 422

16.11 Property Changes, 423

16.12 Temperature, 423

16.13 Oxidation: Molecular Transitions and Chemical Influences, 425

16.14 Deposit Formation, 426

16.15 Factors that Affect Deposit Formation, 428

16.16 Documenting Failure, 429

References, 432

17 Mechanical Integrity of Process Vessels and Piping 435
Oliver A. Onyewuenyi

17.1 Perspectives on Mechanical Integrity, Fitness for Service, and Condition Monitoring, 437

17.2 Types of Flaws and Damage Mechanisms, 439

17.3 Inspection, Characterization, and Monitoring of Flaws, 442

17.4 Fracture Mechanics and Fitness-for-Service Assessment, 443

17.5 Control and Prevention of Brittle Fracture, 452

17.6 Case Histories and Examples of FFS Applications to Cracks in Process Plant Pressure Vessels, 459

References, 464

18 Design of Pressure Vessels and Piping 467
Maher Y. A. Younan

18.1 Modes of Failure, 467

18.2 Basic Stress Analysis, 469

18.3 Design of Pressure Vessels, 470

18.4 Design of Piping Systems, 481

References, 486

19 Process Safety in Chemical Processes 489
Jelenka Savkovic-Stevanovic

19.1 The Hazards, 490

19.2 Hazard Analysis, 499

19.3 Risk Analysis, 503

19.4 Safety Ratings, 511

19.5 Development and Design of a Safe Plant, 524

19.6 Safety Process Operation, 543

19.7 Safety and Reliability Analysis, 557

19.8 Summary, 581

References, 582

SECTION III PROCESS MEASUREMENT, CONTROL, AND MODELING

20 Flowmeters and Measurement 587
Gregory Livelli and Chikezie Nwaoha

20.1 Flow Measurement Techniques, 587

20.2 Flow-Rate Meters, 592

20.3 Common Problems of Flowmeters, 599

20.4 Flowmeter Installation and Maintenance, 601

20.5 Calibration and Certification, 606

20.6 LACT and Prover Descriptions, 607

20.7 Troubleshooting LACT and Prover Systems, 614

20.8 Troubleshooting Flowmeters, 614

References, 617

21 Process Control 619
John A. Shaw

21.1 Control System Components, 619

21.2 Control System Requirements, 620

21.3 Sensor Response, 620

21.4 Control Algorithms, 624

21.5 Loop Tuning, 625

21.6 Multiloop Control, 629

21.7 Final Control Elements, 633

21.8 Process Controllers, 634

Reference, 634

22 Process Modeling and Simulation 635
Mathew Chidiebere Aneke

22.1 Process Modeling, 635

22.2 Process Simulation, 636

22.3 Process Optimization, 636

22.4 Commercial Tools for Process Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization, 637

22.5 Process Modeling Case Studies, 638

22.6 Concluding Remarks, 650

References, 650

Appendix I Methods for Measuring Process Temperature 653
Chikezie Nwaoha

Appendix II Airflow Troubleshooting 659
Chikezie Nwaoha

Appendix III MIG Shielding Gas Control and Optimization 663
Jerry Uttrachi

Appendix IV Rupture Disk Selection 665
Chikezie Nwaoha

Appendix V Pressure Gauge Selection 669
Chikezie Nwaoha

Appendix VI Corrosion and Its Mitigation in the Oil and Gas Industries 673
Krupavaram Nalli

Appendix VII Mixers 681
Jayesh Ramesh Tekchandaney

Glossary of Processing Terms 685

Garlock Sealing Technologies

Index 693

Michael D. Holloway, AS, BA, BS, MS, CLS, has over twenty-five years of industrial experience in lab synthesis, pilot scale manufacturing, product development, application engineering, sales and marketing management, and most recently as Director of Technical Development and Reliability for NCH Corporation. A graduate of Salve Regina College and the University of Massachusetts, he has served as a contributing writer for Manufacturing.net, Assembly, and Plant Services and is the author of Spend Analysis and Specification Development Using Failure Interpretation. He resides in North Texas with his wife and two children.

Chikezie Nwaoha, AMIMechE, MOSHAN, is a petroleum engineer specializing in process engineering/equipment operations, natural gas processing/distribution, and pipeline integrity. He is a contributing editor to both Control Engineering Asia and PetroMin and a downstream correspondent to Petroleum Africa. He worked with Port Harcourt Refining Company (PHRC) in 2005 and 2007 as an industrial trainee. He is also a guest member of the Subsea Integrity Research Group, University of Aberdeen.

OLIVER A. ONYEWUENYI, PE, PhD, is President of MISOL Technology Solutions LLC. He was formerly the program manager of Deepwater Technology/R&D at Shell International and led the award-winning Shell Structural Integrity Analysis Team in Houston. He is the recipient of four industry awards from ASME International and six Shell Special Recognition Awards.

“Process Plant Equipment Book is another great publication from Wiley as a reference book for final year students as well as those who will work or are working in chemical production plants and refinery…” (Associate Prof. Dr. Ramli Mat, Deputy Dean (Academic), Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia)

“… give[s] readers access to both fundamental information on process plant equipment and to practical ideas, best practices and experiences of highly successful engineers from around the world.” (Stainless Steel World, November 2012)

“The book is illustrated throughout with numerous black & white photos and diagrams and also contains case studies demonstrating how actual process plants have implemented the tools and techniques discussed in the book.  An extensive list of references enables readers to explore each individual topic in greater depth.”  (Valve World, November 2012)