Smart Grid Applications, Communications, and Security

For many, smart grids are the biggest technological revolution since the Internet. They have the potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, increase the reliability of electricity supply, and increase the efficiency of our energy infrastructure. Smart Grid Applications, Communications, and Security explains how diverse technologies play hand-in-hand in building and maintaining smart grids around the globe. The book delves into the communication aspects of smart grids, provides incredible insight into power electronics, sensing, monitoring, and control technologies, and points out the potential for new technologies and markets. Extensively cross-referenced, the book contains comprehensive coverage in four major parts: Part I: Applications provides a detailed introduction to smart grid applications—spanning the transmission, distribution, and consumer side of the electricity grid Part II: Communications discusses wireless, wireline, and optical communication solutions—from the physical layers up to sensing, automation, and control protocols running on the application layers Part III: Security deals with cyber security—sharpening the awareness of security threats, reviewing the ongoing standardization, and outlining the future of authentication and encryption key management Part IV: Case Studies and Field Trials presents self-contained chapters of studies where the smart grid of tomorrow has already been put into practice With contributions from major industry stakeholders such as Siemens, Cisco, ABB, and Motorola, this is the ideal book for both engineering professionals and students.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv Contributors xvii Part I Applications 1 Introduction to Smart Grid Applications 3 Xiaoming Feng, James Stoupis, Salman Mohagheghi, and Mats Larsson 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Voltage and Var Control and Optimization 5 1.2.1 Introduction 5 1.2.2 Devices for Voltage and Var Control 6 1.2.3 Voltage Drop and Energy Loss in Distribution System 7 1.2.4 Load Response to Voltage Variations 8 1.2.5 Benefit Potentials of Voltage and Var Control 9 1.2.6 Voltage and Var Control Approaches 10 1.2.7 Communication Requirements 12 1.2.8 Inclusion of New Controllable Resources 13 1.2.9 Interaction with Other Applications 14 1.3 Fault Detection, Isolation, and Restoration (FDIR) 14 1.3.1 Drivers and Benefits of FDIR 15 1.3.2 FDIR Background 15 1.3.3 Field-Based FDIR Schemes 16 1.3.4 Control Center-Based FDIR Schemes 19 1.3.5 Reliability: Present and Future 20 1.4 Demand Response (DR) 21 1.4.1 Types of DR Programs 22 1.4.2 Communication Requirements 24 1.4.3 Statistical Reliability of Demand Response 24 1.5 Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) 25 1.5.1 Operation and Control 26 1.5.2 Communication Requirements 28 1.5.3 Sustainable Power Grid 28 1.6 Wide-Area Monitoring, Control, and Protection (WAMCP) 28 1.6.1 Structure of a Wide-Area Monitoring, Control, and Protection System 29 1.6.2 Overview of WAMCP Applications 34 1.6.3 Stabilizing and Emergency Control Actions 37 1.6.4 Implementation Aspects of WAMCP Systems 39 References 44 2 Electric Vehicles as a Driver for Smart Grids 49 Nigel Fitzpatrick and Alec Tsang 2.1 Introduction 49 2.2 Plug-In Electric Vehicles and Hybrids 50 2.3 Hybrids 51 2.4 The General Electric Delta Car 52 2.5 Batteries, Ultracapacitors, and Semi and Full-Fuel Cells 53 2.6 Lithium Ion 56 2.7 Cell Voltage, Reliability of Stacks, and Impact of Inverters 57 2.8 Battery Mass Fraction, Energy, Power, Benefits and a Penalty 58 2.9 Vehicle Classes, Niches, and Constraints 59 2.10 Messages from Full-Cycle Modeling, Energy Security, and Air Quality 60 2.11 Market Penetration by Vehicle Niche 60 2.12 Vehicle Architecture, Key Components, Controls, and Cost 61 2.13 Grid to Vehicle (G2V) Charging: Levels 1 to 3 62 2.13.1 Level 1: 125 Volt AC 63 2.13.2 Level 2: Greater than 125 Volt AC or Greater than 20 amps 63 2.13.3 Level 3: Charging 64 2.14 Grid Impacts 64 2.15 Vehicle to Grid (V2G): A First or Second Order Matter? 66 2.16 Second Life for Used Vehicle Batteries Grid-Side Instead? 68 2.17 The City and the Vehicle 69 2.18 Impact of Electric Drive on Greenhouse Gas Emissions 69 2.19 Conclusions 70 Acknowledgments 71 References 71 3 Autonomous Demand-Side Management 75 Hamed Mohsenian-Rad and Alberto Leon-Garcia 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Direct and Indirect Demand-Side Management 77 3.3 Autonomous Demand-Side Management 79 3.4 Optimal Energy Consumption Scheduling 82 3.5 Price Prediction 88 3.6 Managing User-Side Storage and Generation 91 3.7 Conclusion 92 References 92 4 Power Electronics for Monitoring, Signaling, and Protection 97 Wilsun Xu 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 Power Line Communication 98 4.2.1 Zero-Crossing Shift Technique 98 4.2.2 Waveform Distortion Technique 99 4.2.3 Ripple Signaling Technique 101 4.2.4 Summary 102 4.3 Condition Monitoring and Fault Detection 102 4.3.1 Online Motor Thermal Protection 103 4.3.2 Faulted Line Identification in Ungrounded Systems 104 4.3.3 Generator Ground Fault Detection 105 4.3.4 HVDC Neutral Ground Fault Detection 107 4.3.5 Detections of Faults in a De-energized Line 107 4.3.6 Summary 108 4.4 Active Protection 109 4.4.1 Impedance-Based Anti-islanding Protection for Distributed Generators 109 4.4.2 Power Line Signaling-Based Transfer Trip Scheme 110 4.4.3 PT Ferroresonance Protection 112 4.4.4 Summary 113 4.5 Power Electronics Signaling Technology 113 4.6 Conclusions 115 References 116 Part II Communications 5 Introduction to Smart Grid Communications 121 Wenbo Shi and Vincent W. S. Wong 5.1 Introduction 122 5.2 An Overview of Network Architecture 124 5.3 Premises Network 127 5.4 Neighborhood Area Network 131 5.5 Wide Area Network 135 5.6 Standardization Activities 138 5.7 Conclusions 141 References 142 6 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS IN SMART GRIDS 145 Juan José García Fernández, Lars Torsten Berger, Ana García Armada, María Julia Fernández-Getino García, Víctor P. Gil Jiménez, and Troels B. Sørensen 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 Wireless Personal Area Networks 150 6.2.1 802.15.4 Physical Layer 151 6.2.2 802.15.4 Medium Access Control Sublayer 153 6.2.3 ZigBee Network Layer 154 6.2.4 ZigBee Application Layer 155 6.3 Wireless Local Area Networks 156 6.3.1 Wi-Fi Physical Layer (PHY) 157 6.3.2 Wi-Fi Medium Access Control (MAC) 160 6.4 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks 162 6.4.1 The 802.16 Physical Layer 162 6.4.2 The 802.16 Medium Access Control Layer 164 6.5 Cellular Networks 165 6.5.1 Cellular Systems 165 6.5.2 Applicability to Machine-to-Machine Communications 166 6.5.3 Cellular Characteristics 167 6.6 Satellite Communications 170 6.6.1 Satellite Orbits 171 6.6.2 Satellite Regulations 173 6.6.3 Frequency Bands and Propagation Effects 174 6.6.4 Satellite Technology and Topology Considerations 175 6.6.5 Satellite Communication Standards 176 6.6.6 Fixed Satellite Systems 178 6.6.7 Mobile Satellite Systems 180 6.7 Conclusions 181 Acknowledgment 182 References 182 7 Wireline Communications in Smart Grids 191 Lars Torsten Berger 7.1 Introduction 191 7.2 Phone Line Technology 195 7.2.1 DSL Overview 195 7.2.2 DSL Scenarios 196 7.2.3 ADSL2+ and VDSL2 199 7.3 Coaxial Cable Technologies 201 7.3.1 Coax Scenarios 202 7.3.2 Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) 203 7.4 Power Line Technology 204 7.4.1 PLC Scenarios, Channel, and Noise Aspects 205 7.4.2 PLC Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations 210 7.4.3 Narrowband PLC 213 7.4.4 Broadband PLC 215 7.5 Conclusions 220 Acknowledgment 220 References 220 8 Optical Communications in Smart Grids 231 Kris Iniewski 8.1 Introduction 231 8.2 Passive Optical Networks (PONs) 232 8.3 Wave Length Division Multiplexing (WDM) 235 8.4 SONET/SDH 238 8.5 Carrier Ethernet 239 8.6 Conclusions 241 References 242 9 Network Layer Aspects of Smart Grid Communications 243 Kris Iniewski 9.1 Introduction 243 9.2 TCP/IP Networks 244 9.2.1 TCP/IP Protocol Stack 244 9.2.2 Quality of Service (QoS) 247 9.2.3 IPv6 247 9.2.4 TCP/IP for Wireless Networks 247 9.3 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) 248 9.4 Conclusions 248 References 249 10 Smart Grid Sensing, Automation, and Control Protocols 251 Wolfgang Mahnke 10.1 Introduction 251 10.1.1 Communication 253 10.1.2 Information Model 257 10.2 Protocols and Standards 259 10.2.1 IEC 61850 260 10.2.2 IEC 61968/IEC 61970 267 10.2.3 OPC UA 272 10.2.4 DNP3 279 10.2.5 BACnet 280 10.2.6 OpenADR 282 10.2.7 ZigBee 284 10.2.8 Other Specifications 285 10.3 Conclusions 286 References 289 Part III security 11 Introduction to Smart Grid Cyber Security 295 Pedro Marín Fernandes 11.1 Introduction 295 11.2 Examples 299 11.2.1 The North American Example 299 11.2.2 The European Example 314 11.3 Conclusion 316 References 319 12 Smart Grid Security Standardization 321 Steffen Fries and Hans-Joachim Hof 12.1 Standardization Activities 321 12.2 Smart Grid Security Requirements 321 12.3 Security Relevant Regulation and Standardization Activities 323 12.3.1 ISO/IEC 324 12.3.2 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 327 12.3.3 ISA (International Society of Automation) 327 12.3.4 CIGRE 328 12.3.5 NERC (North American Electric Reliability Corporation) 328 12.3.6 National Activities 329 12.4 Trends in Energy Automation Security 332 12.5 Conclusion 333 References 333 13 Smart Grid Authentication and Key Management 337 Anthony Metke 13.1 Introduction and Scope 337 13.1.1 Overview of Potential Vulnerabilities 338 13.1.2 High Level System Requirements 339 13.1.3 Review of Key Management Techniques 341 13.2 Authentication and Authorization Issues in the Smart Grid 347 13.2.1 Grid to Grid 347 13.2.2 AMI 348 13.2.3 HAN 349 13.3 Architectural Considerations and Recommendations 350 13.3.1 Malware Protection 350 13.3.2 Device Attestation 353 13.3.3 Holistic PKI model 353 13.4 Conclusion and Next Steps 358 References 360 Part IV Case Studies and Field Trials 14 Hybrid Wireless–Plc Smart Grid in Rural Greece 365 Angeliki M. Sarafi , Athanasios E. Drougas, Petros I. Papaioannou, and Panayotis G. Cottis 14.1 Introduction 365 14.2 Network Design and Implementation 366 14.2.1 PHY and MAC Specifications 367 14.2.2 Cell-Based Architecture for W-BPL Networks 369 14.2.3 The Network Operating Center (NOC) 369 14.2.4 Last-Mile Access 370 14.3 Smart-Grid Applications Offered in Larissa 371 14.3.1 Grid Monitoring and Operations Optimization 371 14.3.2 Demand-Side Management 373 14.3.3 Broadband Services 374 14.4 Key Lessons Learned 375 14.4.1 Issues Related to the Site of the BPL Deployment 375 14.4.2 Issues Related to the Condition of MV Grid 376 14.4.3 Application Related Issues 377 14.5 Conclusions 378 References 379 15 SMART CHARGING THE ELECTRIC VEHICLE FLEET 381 Peter Bach Andersen, Einar Bragi Hauksson, Anders Bro Pedersen, Dieter Gantenbein, Bernhard Jansen, Claus Amtrup Andersen, and Jacob Dall 15.1 Introduction 381 15.2 The Fleet Operator as a New Conceptual Role 382 15.2.1 Fleet Operator Interaction with Grid and Market Stakeholders 382 15.2.2 The Objective of the Fleet Operator 384 15.2.3 ICT Architecture Setup and Requirements 385 15.3 EDISON and the Use of Standards 386 15.3.1 Standards Between Electric Vehicle and Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment: IEC 61851 and ISO/IEC 15118 387 15.3.2 Standard Between Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment and Fleet Operator: IEC 61850 388 15.4 Smart Charging Communication Components 390 15.4.1 The IEC 61850 Server 390 15.4.2 The EDISON VPP 392 15.4.3 The EDISON I/O Board 394 15.5 Charging Infrastructure Communication 394 15.5.1 Interface Connecting EV to EVSE 395 15.5.2 Interface Connecting EVSE to Fleet Operator 396 15.5.3 Interface Connecting EV User to Fleet Operator 399 15.6 Demonstration 400 15.6.1 End-to-End Demonstration: From EV to Operator Panel 400 15.6.2 Physical Demonstration Assets 401 15.6.3 A Large-Scale Virtual Fleet 402 15.7 Conclusion and Future Work 403 References 406 16 Real-Time Estimation of Transmission Line Parameters 409 Wenyuan Li, Paul Choudhury, and Jun Sun 16.1 Introduction 409 16.2 Basic Concepts 410 16.3 Filtering Invalid Measurements 412 16.4 Estimating Parameters Rij, Xij, and Y 414 16.5 Simulation Results 417 16.5.1 Estimating Parameters of a Line in IEEE 118-Bus System, 418 16.5.2 Estimating Parameters of a Line in BC Hydro System 418 16.6 Conclusions 421 References 426 17 Wamcp Study: Voltage Stability Monitoring and Control 429 Mats Larsson 17.1 Wide-Area Voltage Stability Protection 429 17.1.1 Power System State Prediction and Optimization 430 17.1.2 Heuristic Tree Search 431 17.1.3 Voltage Stability Protection Based on Local Measurements 433 17.1.4 Test Network 433 17.1.5 Scenarios and Simulation Results 436 17.2 Conclusion 440 References 440 18 Secure Remote Access to Home Energy Appliances 443 Steffen Fries and Hans-Joachim Hof 18.1 Introduction 443 18.2 Challenges in the Smart Grid 444 18.3 Access Control and Authorization for Remote Access to Home Energy Appliances 446 18.3.1 ASIA: Operation in Session Invocation Mode 448 18.3.2 ASIA: Operation in Redirect Mode 449 18.3.3 ASIA: Operation in Proxy Mode 450 18.3.4 ASIA Mode Comparison 451 Index 455