The Problem of Minorities

First published in 1939, The Problem of Minorities: Or Communal Representation in India by K. B. Krishna, is a seminal exploration of the complex dynamics of communal representation in colonial India. The book delves into the origins, evolution, and implications of British policies that institutionalized communal divisions, particularly between Hindus and Muslims. Divided into five parts, it examines the historical roots of the problem, tracing the emergence of professional, landed, and mercantile classes under British rule and the development of communal representation from 1909 to 1935. Krishna critically analyzes key events like the Minto-Morley Reforms, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, the Communal Award, and the Poona Pact, while drawing parallels with similar policies in Ceylon, Kenya, and Palestine. The book also scrutinizes the socio-political causes of communal riots and the role of British imperialism in exacerbating tensions. A thought-provoking conclusion ties the Indian experience to broader global struggles with communalism and national identity. This is a must read for scholars and researchers of Indian and South Asian history.

Author’s Preface Introduction 1. What is the Problem of Minorities in India? 2. Statement of the Problem Part I - The Origins 1. Introduction: War of Ideas 2. Schools of Political Thought with Reference to British Policy in India 3. Organization of British Policy: The Emergence of the Professional Classes 4. The Classes of Princes, Rajahs, and Maharajas 5. The Class of Landed Magnets 6. The Class of Privileged Tenants 7. Indian Mercantile Class 8. The Genesis of British Policy of Counterpoise and Concession 9. Basis of British Policy of Counterpoise and Coercion 10. Minto and the Objective Elements of the Situation 11. Minto and the Subjective Elements of the Situation 12. Minto’s Anxiety to Show that the Idea of Reforms Originated with Him and in India 13. Minto’s Contribution to the Politics of India 14. Morley’s Share in the Initiation of Concessions 15. The Growth of the Moslem Professional Classes 16. The Extension of the Principle of Representation of Communities, Interests, and Classes to Moselms 17. Reasons Which Induced Minto to Extend the Principle of Communities, Classes, and Interests to Moselms 18. Role of Gokale in the Extension of the Principle to Moslems 19. Critique of the Principle of Representation of Communities, Classes, and Interests 20. Summary Part II: History of the Idea of Communal Representation, 1909- 1935 1. Organization of the Professional Classes 1905- 1909 2. Organization of the Commercial and Industrialist Classes, 1914- 1919 3. Further History of Communal Representation 4. Role of Montagu in the Extension of the Idea of Communal Representation 5. Class Struggles 6. Further History of the Idea of Communal Representation 7. The Round Table Conference 8. Role of MacDonald: Communal Award, Poona Pact, White Paper, Joint Committee Report, New Constitution Bill for India 9. Summary Part III: Parallels in the Empire 1. Communal Representation in Ceylon 2. Communal Representation in Kenya 3. Counterpoise, Conversion, and Class Struggles in Palestine Part IV: An Estimate of the Hindu Muslim Problem 1. Introduction 2. The Mopla Rebellion, 1921 3. The Bombay Riots 4. The Cawnpore Riots 5. The Role of the Officials in the Furtherance of Communal Tensions 6. Theories Concerning the Causes of Riots 7. Religion and Economics 8. Summary Part V: The Present Phase 1. Summary of the Arguments for and Against Communal Representation 2. Political Characteristics of British Imperialism 3. The Development of the Opposing Forces 4. The Present Phase of the Problem 5. The National Question in USSR: Conclusion