Introduction to Sustainable Energy Transformation

This textbook provides an accessible introduction to various energy transformation technologies and their influences on the environment. Here the energy transformation is understood as any physical process induced by humans, in which energy is intentionally transformed from one form to another. This book provides an accessible introduction to the subject: covering the theory, principles of design, operation, and efficiency of the systems in addition to discerning concepts such as energy, entropy, exergy, efficiency, and sustainability. It is not assumed that readers have any previous exposure to such concepts as laws of thermodynamics, entropy, exergy, fluid mechanics or heat transfer, and is therefore an ideal textbook for advanced undergraduate students. Key features: Represents a complete source of information on sustainable energy transformation systems and their externalities. Includes all existing and major emerging technologies in the field. Chapters include numerous examples and problems for further learning opportunities.

Table of Contents:
SECTION I Energy Forms and Resources Fundamental Concepts 1.1 Units and Notation 1.1.1 Units 1.1.2 Notation 1.1.3 Atomic and nuclear nomenclature 1.2 Structure of Matter 1.2.1 Matter 1.2.2 The Atom 1.2.3 Sources of Nuclear and Atomic Information 1.3 Energy in Matter 1.3.1 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 1.3.2 Internal Energy 1.3.3 Energy in Chemical Reactions 1.3.4 Energy in Nuclear Reactions Problems Energy Forms, Reserves, Supply, and Consumption 2.1 Energy Forms 2.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy 2.1.2 Energy Carrier 2.1.3 Final Energy 2.1.4 Useful Energy 2.1.5 Electricity 2.1.6 Heat 2.2 Reserves of Energy-Containing Minerals 2.2.1 Fossil Fuels 2.2.2 Uranium 2.2.3 Other Minerals 2.3 Energy Supply 2.3.1 Crude Oil 2.3.2 Coal 2.3.3 Natural Gas 2.3.4 Biofuels and Waste 2.3.5 Nuclear 2.3.6 Hydro 2.3.7 Wind 2.3.8 Solar 2.4 Power Sector 2.5 Energy Consumption 2.5.1 Aluminium Production 2.5.2 Cement Production 2.5.3 Iron and Steel 2.5.4 Pulp and Paper 2.5.5 Chemicals 2.5.6 Energy Services 2.5.7 Energy Efficiency and Environment Protection Elements of Sustainability 3.1 Sustainability Goals 3.2 Environment 3.2.1 Atmosphere 3.2.2 Biosphere 3.2.3 Hydrosphere 3.3.1 Role of Economy in Sustainability 3.3.2 Ways to Promote Environmental Protection 3.3.3 Climate Change Mechanical and Electromagnetic Energy 4.1 Forces and Fields 4.1.1 A Force 4.1.2 A Field 4.2 Mechanical Energy 4.2.1 Kinetic Energy 4.2.2 Potential Energy 4.2.3 Work and Power 4.2.4 Linear and Angular Momentum 4.2.5 Mechanical Energy Losses 4.2.6 Mechanical Energy Storage 4.3 Electromagnetic Energy 4.3.1 Electrostatics 4.3.2 Electric Current 4.3.3 Magnetism 4.3.4 Induction 4.3.5 Electrical Devices 4.3.6 Electromagnetic Energy Losses 4.3.7 Electromagnetic Energy Storage Biological and Chemical Energy 5.1 Photosynthesis 5.1.1 Mechanisms of Photosynthesis 5.1.2 Photosynthesis Efficiency 5.2 Food Energy 5.2.1 Food Production 5.2.2 Fertilizers 5.3 Bioenergy 5.3.1 Biomass 5.3.2 Biogas 5.3.3 Ethanol 5.3.4 Biodiesel 5.4 Fossil Fuels 5.4.1 Coal 5.4.2 Petroleum 5.4.3 Natural Gas 5.5 Combustion 5.5.1 Combustion of Gasoline 5.5.2 Combustion of Ethanol 5.5.3 Combustion of Coal 5.5.4 Combustion of Hydrogen Nuclear Energy 6.1 Binding Energy of a Nucleus 6.2 Energy Transformation in Stars 6.3 Characteristics of the Nuclear Fission 6.3.1 Fission Products 6.3.2 Neutron Emission 6.3.3 Energy Released in Fission Reactions 6.4 Nuclear Fusion 6.5 Radioactive Decay Thermal Energy 7.1 Introductory Definitions 7.1.1 Thermodynamic Control Systems 7.1.2 State Parameters 7.1.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 7.1.4 Thermodynamic Diagrams 7.1.5 Thermodynamic Processes 7.1.6 Thermodynamic Cycles 7.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics 7.2.1 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 7.2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 7.2.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics 7.3 Equation of State 7.3.1 The Ideal Gas Law 7.3.2 Ideal Gas Mixtures 7.3.3 Van der Waals Equation of State 7.3.4 Principle of Corresponding States 7.3.5 Phase Change 7.4 Thermodynamic Processes in Heat Engines 7.4.1 Isothermal Process 7.4.2 Isochoric Process 7.4.3 Isobaric Process 7.4.4 Adiabatic Process 7.4.5 Polytropic Process 7.5 Thermodynamic Cycles 7.5.1 Carnot Cycle 7.5.2 Rankine Cycle 7.5.3 Brayton Cycle 7.5.4 Stirling Cycle 7.5.5 Kalina Cycle 7.5.6 Combined Cycle 7.6 Entropy Balance 7.7 Principle of Maximum Work 7.8 Exergy Balance 7.8.1 Mechanical and Electrical Exergy 7.8.2 Thermal Exergy 7.8.3 Chemical Exergy 7.8.4 Total Exergy of Substance 7.8.5 Exergy of Heat Reservoirs 7.8.6 Exergy Losses Fluid Flow in Energy Systems 8.1 Generalized Conservation Law 8.1.1 General Integral Conservation Equation 8.1.2 Stationary Control Volume 8.1.3 Moving Control Volume 8.1.4 Material Volume 8.1.5 Local Differential Formulation 8.2 Closure Relationships 8.2.1 Total Stress Tensor 8.2.2 Heat Flux 8.2.3 Entropy Generation 8.3 Space-Averaged Flow in a Tube 8.3.1 Averaged Mass Conservation Equation 8.3.2 Averaged Momentum Conservation Equation 8.4 Internal Flows 8.4.1 Average Flow Parameters 8.4.2 Wall Shear Stress and Friction Pressure Loss 8.4.3 Macroscopic Energy Balance for Adiabatic Channel 8.4.4 Local Pressure Losses 8.5 External Flows 8.6 Multiphase Flows 8.6.1 Notation and Nomenclature 8.6.2 Flow Patterns 8.6.3 Homogeneous Equilibrium Model 8.6.4 Homogeneous Relaxation Model 8.6.5 Separated Flow Model 8.6.6 Drift Flux Model 8.6.7 Two-Fluid Model Heat Transfer in Energy Systems 9.1 Governing Equations 9.2 Conduction 9.2.1 Steady-State Heat Conduction 9.2.2 Transient Heat Conduction 9.3 Convection 9.3.1 Forced Convection 9.3.2 Natural Convection 9.4 Boiling 9.4.1 Nucleation and Ebullition Cycle 9.4.2 Pool Boiling 9.4.4 Onset of Nucleate Boiling 9.4.5 Subcooled Boiling 9.4.6 Saturated Boiling 9.5 Boiling Crisis 9.5.1 Pool Boiling Crisis 9.5.2 Flow Boiling Crisis 9.6 Post-Boiling-Crisis Heat Transfer 9.7 Radiation SECTION II Energy Transformation Systems Efficiency of Energy Transformation 10.1 Power Generation Technologies 10.2 Energy Efficiency 10.2.1 First-Law Efficiency 10.2.2 Second-Law Efficiency 10.3 Energy Conservation and Storage Thermal Power 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Condensing Power 11.2.1 Schematic of a Basic System 11.2.2 Basic System Efficiency 11.2.3 Efficiency Improvements 11.2.4 System Modelling 11.3 Stationary Gas Turbines 11.4 Combined Cycle Power 11.5 Cogeneration and Trigeneration Moving Water Energy 12.1 Hydropower ................................................................................................209 12.1.1 Hydropower Potential ....................................................................210 12.1.2 Types of Water Turbines ................................................................210 12.1.3 Types of Hydropower Plants..........................................................211 12.1.4 Analysis of Water Turbine Efficiency............................................214 12.2 Marine Current Power ................................................................................216 12.3 Wave Power ................................................................................................216 12.4 Tidal Power.................................................................................................217 Wind Energy 13.1 Energy of Moving Air 13.2 Wind Power Machines. 13.2.1 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines 13.2.2 Darrieus turbines 13.2.3 Savonius Turbines 13.3 Wind Energy Resources 13.4 Wind Characteristics 13.4.1 Temporal Variability of Wind 13.4.2 Global Circulation in Atmosphere 13.4.3 Synoptic Scale Winds 13.4.4 Diurnal Wind Changes 13.4.5 Modelling Wind Speed Variation 13.4.6 Wind Rose - Wind Direction and Intensity 13.5 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics 13.5.1 Maximum Power of a Wind Turbine 13.5.2 Wind Turbine Efficiency 13.6 Environmental Effects of Wind Power 13.6.1 Noise 13.6.2 Shadow Flicker 13.6.3 Visual Impact 13.6.4 Bird Collisions 13.6.5 Site Planning Solar Energy 14.1 Solar Radiation on Earth 14.1.1 Energy of the Sunlight 14.1.2 Sun Position 14.1.3 Components of Solar Radiation 14.1.4 Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces 14.2 Solar Thermal Energy 14.2.1 Absorption of Radiation 14.2.2 Collectors 14.2.3 Concentrators 14.3 Photovoltaic Solar Cells 14.3.1 Theory 14.3.2 Silicon Solar Cells 14.3.3 Advanced Solar Cells 14.3.4 Photovoltaic Modules Nuclear Energy 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Neutron Reactions 15.1.2 Neutron Flux 15.1.3 The Neutron Cycle in Thermal Reactor 15.2 Reactor Analysis and Design 15.2.1 Steady-State Reactor Physics 15.2.2 Thermal-Hydraulic Design 15.3 Reactor Kinetics and Dynamics 15.4 Fuel Composition Changes 15.4.1 Fuel Conversion and Breeding 15.4.2 Fission Product Poisoning 15.5 Reactor Types 15.5.1 Currently Operable Reactors 15.5.2 Advanced Reactors 15.6 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 15.7 Nuclear Power Safety 15.8 Fusion Reactors and Other Technologies 15.8.1 Potential Fusion Reactions 15.8.2 Fusion Power Density 15.8.3 Plasma Confinement Methods 15.8.4 Fusion Performance Criteria 15.8.5 ITER 15.8.6 Other Technologies SECTION III External Effects Energy and Environment 16.1 Climate 16.2 Greenhouse effect 16.3 Earth energy imbalance 16.4 CO2 Concentration 16.5 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 16.6 Air Pollution 16.7 Water Use and Contamination 16.8 Land Use 16.9 Mineral Use Risks, Safety, and Cost Analysis 17.1 Risk Analysis 17.1.1 Risk of Energy Systems 17.1.2 Probabilistic Risk Assessment 17.2 Hazards in Energy Systems 17.2.1 Solar Power 17.2.2 Wind Power 17.2.3 Hydropower 17.2.4 Combustion-based Thermal Power 17.2.5 Geothermal Power 17.2.6 Nuclear Power 17.3 Cost Analysis 17.3.1 Calculation Methods 17.3.2 Levelized Cost of Energy Appendix A Notation Appendix B Constants Appendix C Data Appendix D Mathematical Tools Appendix E Units References Index

About the Author :
Henryk Anglart is a professor of Nuclear Engineering at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, and at the Warsaw University of Technology (WUT), Warsaw, Poland. He received his MSc from WUT and his PhD from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY. After his eighteen-year career as a research and development engineer at Westinghouse in Sweden, he accepted a tenure position at KTH, where he has supervised many PhD students and post-doctoral fellows, and has taught several courses in nuclear engineering. In addition to research and teaching, prof. Henryk Anglart was serving for a long time as head of Reactor Technology Division and Deputy Director of the Physics Department. He is currently a Director of Nuclear Technology Center at KTH. Prof. Henryk Anglart authored and co-authored over 200 journal, conference and other scientific publications. He is also an author of three textbooks used in teaching of nuclear engineering courses at WUT and KTH.