Measurement in Health Behavior: Methods for Research and Evaluation(Jossey-Bass Public Health)

Measurement in Health Behavior offers faculty, students, researchers, and public health professionals the information they need to improve their knowledge of instrument development and testing and their understanding of reliability and validity testing discussed in articles and reports. The book also helps improve students’ and professionals’ ability to conduct basic tests for reliability and validity and hones their skills in interpreting the results of data analysis. Based on data collected from the author’s more than ten years of research and program development, Measurement in Health Behavior provides realistic examples from the public health arena to clearly demonstrate the book’s concepts.

Table of Contents:
Tables, Figures, and Exhibits xv Preface xxi The Author xxv 1 Introduction to Measurement 1 Role of Measurement in Health Education and Health Behavior Research 1 Brief History of Psychosocial Measurement 3 Conceptualization of Measurement 6 Reasons for Measuring Concepts 8 Scales of Measurement 9 Nominal Scale 9 Ordinal Scale 11 Interval Scale 12 Ratio Scale 14 Levels of Measurement and Statistics 15 Major Concepts of Measurement: Reliability and Validity 16 Reliability 16 Validity 17 Summary 17 2 Types of Measures 18 Self-Report 19 Interviews 19 Questionnaires 20 Journals and Diaries 22 Response Scales 23 Scaling Methods 24 Visual Analog Scale 24 Thurstone Scale 26 Likert Scale 28 Guttman Scale 29 Semantic Differential Rating Scale 30 Indexes 31 Observations 33 Biobehavioral Measures 33 Electronic Measures 34 Summary 35 3 Measurement Error 36 Definition 37 Classification of Measurement Error 38 Random Error 38 Systematic Error 39 Measurement Error Factors 40 Respondent Factors 40 Response Sets 42 Social Desirability 42 Acquiescence and Nay-Saying 44 End Aversion (Central Tendency) 44 Positive Skew 45 Halo 46 Recall 46 Instrument Factors 48 Strategies to Reduce Errors on Self-Report Questionnaires 50 Strategies to Reduce Errors During Interviews 51 Situational Factors 51 Measurement Rules 53 Summary 53 4 Survey Development 54 Definition 55 Basic Principles of Survey Construction 55 Purpose 55 Objectives 56 Respondents 59 General Principles of Item Writing 59 The Do’s of Item Writing 60 The Don’ts of Item Writing 68 Survey Format 70 Survey Administration 72 Summary 74 5 Knowledge Tests 75 Test Construction 76 State the Purpose of the Test 76 State the Test Objectives 78 Review Content 79 Develop a Table of Test Specifications 79 Domain-Sampling Model 80 Types of Items 84 Multiple-Choice Items 85 True/False Items 90 Item Analysis 92 Item-Objective Congruency 92 Average Congruency Percentage 98 Difficulty Index 98 Item Discrimination Index 101 Summary 101 6 Theory and Measurement 103 Linking Measurement to Theory-Based Health Practice and Research 104 Gibbs’s Model 106 Theoretical and Operational Definitions 109 Conceptualization Issues in Scale Development 110 Survey Versus Scale 110 Single-Item Versus Multiple-Item Scales 111 Concept Selection 113 Concept Analysis 114 Identify Definitions and Uses of the Concept 114 Identify Critical Attributes of the Concept 116 Identify Dimensions of the Concept 117 Identify Similar and Different Concepts 117 Identify Antecedents and Consequences of the Concept 118 Write a Model Case 118 State the Variables 119 Summary 119 7 Item Writing and Scaling 121 Item Development Process 122 State the Theoretical Definition 123 Identify Dimensions of the Concept 123 Create a Content-Domain by Concept-Dimension Matrix 123 Decide How Many Items to Include for Each Matrix Cell 124 Write Items for Each Content-Domain by Concept-Dimension Cell 126 Literature Review 126 Qualitative Interviews 126 Other Instruments 127 Write Rules for Scale Scoring and Administration 128 Summated Rating Scales 128 Types of Response Options 128 Number of Response Options 130 Odd or Even Number of Categories 131 Meanings of Response Option Adjectives or Adverbs 132 Use of Adjectives, Adverbs, or Numbers, or Combinations Thereof 132 Positively and Negatively Worded Items 133 Scoring 133 Summary 135 8 Review of Statistical Concepts 136 Basic Statistical Concepts 137 Frequency Distribution 137 Measures of Central Tendency 139 Measures of Dispersion 139 SPSS Commands 140 Recode Negatively Worded Items Using SPSS 144 Compute Total Scale Scores Using SPSS 145 Review of Correlation 146 Interpretation of the Correlation Coefficient 150 Correlation Matrix 152 Correlation Issues 152 Causality 152 Sample Size 153 Group Differences 154 Restriction of Range 154 Variance 154 Reporting Results of Correlation Analysis 156 Analysis of Variance 157 Definition and Use 157 SPSS Commands for a One-Way ANOVA 158 Interpreting a One-Way ANOVA 158 Summary 162 9 Fundamentals of Reliability 163 Classical Test Theory 165 Observed, True, and Error Scores 165 Assumptions and Characteristics 167 Reliability Coefficient 170 Estimate of Reliability 172 Calculation of Variance Due to the True Score 173 Calculation of the Reliability Index 174 Summary 174 10 Reliability Assessment and Item Analysis 176 Methods of Reliability Assessment 177 Equivalence 177 Stability 178 Internal Consistency 181 Split-Half 181 Coefficient Alpha 184 Cronbach’s Alpha 186 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 189 Factors Associated with Coefficient Alpha 191 Test Length and Interitem Correlation 191 Test Adjustments to Increase Alpha 191 Standards of Reliability 193 Item Analysis 193 Intrarater and Interrater Reliability 199 Intraclass Correlation Coefficient 203 Standard Error of Measurement 205 Generalizability Theory 206 Summary 210 11 Validity 211 Test Content 214 Procedures 215 Content Validity Index 218 Face Validity 219 Response Processes 220 Procedures 221 Think Aloud 221 Verbal Probe 222 Evaluation 222 Relationships to Other Variables 224 Criterion Validity 225 Construct Validity 229 Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix 233 Validity Issues 235 Summary 236 12 Factor Analysis 237 Exploratory Factor Analysis 238 Definition 238 Conceptual Basis 241 How Factor Analysis Works 244 Steps in Factor Analysis 244 Basic Requirements for FA 246 Initial Assessment 247 Evaluation of the Matrix 248 Evaluation of the Determinant 250 Test for an Identity Matrix 251 Tests of Sampling Adequacy 252 Selection of the Type of Factor Analysis 253 Initial Extraction 255 Eigenvalues 256 Communality 257 Number of Factors 261 Rotation of Factors 263 Interpretation of Factors 267 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 273 Summary 275 13 Item Response Theory 276 Disadvantages of Classical Test Theory 277 Item Response Theory Basics 278 Polytomous Models 285 Technical Issues 288 Summary 289 References 290 Index 297

About the Author :
Colleen Konicki Di Iorio, Ph.D., R.N., F.A.A.N, is a professor in the department of behavioral sciences and health education at Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, and the associate editor of The Journal of Nursing Measurement. She has published numerous journal articles and book chapters on research and measurement methods in public health. Di Iorio is a contributor to the third edition of Health Education and Health Behavior from Jossey-Bass.