- A practical book written for engineers who design and use antennas
- The author has many years of hands on experience designing antennas that were used in such applications as the Venus and Mars missions of NASA
- The book covers all important topics of modern antenna design for communications
- Numerical methods will be included but only as much as are needed for practical applications
Table of Contents:
Preface xv
1 Properties of Antennas 1
1-1 Antenna Radiation 2
1-2 Gain 3
1-3 Effective Area 6
1-4 Path Loss 6
1-5 Radar Range Equation and Cross Section 7
1-6 Why Use an Antenna? 9
1-7 Directivity 10
1-8 Directivity Estimates 11
1-8.1 Pencil Beam 11
1-8.2 Butterfly or Omnidirectional Pattern 13
1-9 Beam Efficiency 16
1-10 Input-Impedance Mismatch Loss 17
1-11 Polarization 18
1-11.1 Circular Polarization Components 19
1-11.2 Huygens Source Polarization 21
1-11.3 Relations Between Bases 22
1-11.4 Antenna Polarization Response 23
1-11.5 Phase Response of Rotating Antennas 25
1-11.6 Partial Gain 26
1-11.7 Measurement of Circular Polarization Using Amplitude Only 26
1-12 Vector Effective Height 27
1-13 Antenna Factor 29
1-14 Mutual Coupling Between Antennas 29
1.15 Antenna Noise Temperature 30
1-16 Communication Link Budget and Radar Range 35
1-17 Multipath 36
1-18 Propagation Over Soil 37
1-19 Multipath Fading 39
References 40
2 Radiation Structures and Numerical Methods 42
2-1 Auxiliary Vector Potentials 43
2-1.1 Radiation from Electric Currents 44
2-1.2 Radiation from Magnetic Currents 49
2-2 Apertures: Huygens Source Approximation 51
2-2.1 Near- and Far-Field Regions 55
2-2.2 Huygens Source 57
2-3 Boundary Conditions 57
2-4 Physical Optics 59
2-4.1 Radiated Fields Given Currents 59
2-4.2 Applying Physical Optics 60
2-4.3 Equivalent Currents 65
2-4.4 Reactance Theorem and Mutual Coupling 66
2-5 Method of Moments 67
2-5.1 Use of the Reactance Theorem for the Method of Moments 68
2-5.2 General Moments Method Approach 69
2-5.3 Thin-Wire Moment Method Codes 71
2-5.4 Surface and Volume Moment Method Codes 71
2-5.5 Examples of Moment Method Models 72
2-6 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 76
2-6.1 Implementation 76
2-6.2 Central Difference Derivative 77
2-6.3 Finite-Difference Maxwell’s Equations 77
2-6.4 Time Step for Stability 79
2-6.5 Numerical Dispersion and Stability 80
2-6.6 Computer Storage and Execution Times 80
2-6.7 Excitation 81
2-6.8 Waveguide Horn Example 83
2-7 Ray Optics and the Geometric Theory of Diffraction 84
2-7.1 Fermat’s Principle 85
2-7.2 H -Plane Pattern of a Dipole Located Over a Finite Strip 85
2-7.3 E-Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn 87
2-7.4 H -Plane Pattern of a Rectangular Horn 89
2-7.5 Amplitude Variations Along a Ray 90
2-7.6 Extra Phase Shift Through Caustics 93
2-7.7 Snell’s Laws and Reflection 93
2-7.8 Polarization Effects in Reflections 94
2-7.9 Reflection from a Curved Surface 94
2-7.10 Ray Tracing 96
2-7.11 Edge Diffraction 96
2-7.12 Slope Diffraction 98
2-7.13 Corner Diffraction 99
2-7.14 Equivalent Currents 99
2-7.15 Diffraction from Curved Surfaces 99
References 100
3 Arrays 102
3-1 Two-Element Array 104
3-2 Linear Array of N Elements 109
3-3 Hansen and Woodyard End-Fire Array 114
3-4 Phased Arrays 115
3-5 Grating Lobes 117
3-6 Multiple Beams 118
3-7 Planar Array 120
3-8 Grating Lobes in Planar Arrays 125
3-9 Mutual Impedance 127
3-10 Scan Blindness and Array Element Pattern 127
3-11 Compensating Array Feeding for Mutual Coupling 128
3-12 Array Gain 129
3-13 Arrays Using Arbitrarily Oriented Elements 133
References 135
4 Aperture Distributions and Array Synthesis 136
4-1 Amplitude Taper and Phase Error Efficiencies 137
4-1.1 Separable Rectangular Aperture Distributions 139
4-1.2 Circularly Symmetrical Distributions 140
4-2 Simple Linear Distributions 140
4-3 Taylor One-Parameter Linear Distribution 144
4-4 Taylor n Line Distribution 147
4-5 Taylor Line Distribution with Edge Nulls 152
4-6 Elliott’s Method for Modified Taylor Distribution and Arbitrary Sidelobes 155
4-7 Bayliss Line-Source Distribution 158
4-8 Woodward Line-Source Synthesis 162
4-9 Schelkunoff’s Unit-Circle Method 164
4-10 Dolph–Chebyshev Linear Array 170
4-11 Villeneuve Array Synthesis 172
4-12 Zero Sampling of Continuous Distributions 173
4-13 Fourier Series Shaped-Beam Array Synthesis 175
4-14 Orchard Method of Array Synthesis 178
4-15 Series-Fed Array and Traveling-Wave Feed Synthesis 188
4-16 Circular Apertures 191
4-17 Circular Gaussian Distribution 194
4-18 Hansen Single-Parameter Circular Distribution 195
4-19 Taylor Circular-Aperture Distribution 196
4-20 Bayliss Circular-Aperture Distribution 200
4-21 Planar Arrays 202
4-22 Convolution Technique for Planar Arrays 203
4-23 Aperture Blockage 208
4-24 Quadratic Phase Error 211
4-25 Beam Efficiency of Circular Apertures with Axisymmetric Distribution 214
References 215
5 Dipoles Slots and Loops 217
5-1 Standing-Wave Currents 218
5-2 Radiation Resistance (Conductance) 220
5-3 Babinet–Booker Principle 222
5-4 Dipoles Located Over a Ground Plane 223
5-5 Dipole Mounted Over Finite Ground Planes 225
5-6 Crossed Dipoles for Circular Polarization 231
5-7 Super Turnstile or Batwing Antenna 234
5-8 Corner Reflector 237
5-9 Monopole 242
5-10 Sleeve Antenna 242
5-11 Cavity-Mounted Dipole Antenna 245
5-12 Folded Dipole 247
5-13 Shunt Feeding 248
5-14 Discone Antenna 249
5-15 Baluns 251
5-15.1 Folded Balun 252
5-15.2 Sleeve or Bazooka Baluns 253
5-15.3 Split Coax Balun 255
5-15.4 Half-Wavelength Balun 256
5-15.5 Candelabra Balun 256
5-15.6 Ferrite Core Baluns 256
5-15.7 Ferrite Candelabra Balun 258
5-15.8 Transformer Balun 258
5-15.9 Split Tapered Coax Balun 259
5-15.10 Natural Balun 260
5-16 Small Loop 260
5-17 Alford Loop 261
5-18 Resonant Loop 263
5-19 Quadrifilar Helix 264
5-20 Cavity-Backed Slots 266
5-21 Stripline Series Slots 266
5-22 Shallow-Cavity Crossed-Slot Antenna 269
5-23 Waveguide-Fed Slots 270
5-24 Rectangular-Waveguide Wall Slots 271
5-25 Circular-Waveguide Slots 276
5-26 Waveguide Slot Arrays 278
5-26.1 Nonresonant Array 279
5-26.2 Resonant Array 282
5-26.3 Improved Design Methods 282
References 283
6 Microstrip Antennas 285
6-1 Microstrip Antenna Patterns 287
6-2 Microstrip Patch Bandwidth and Surface-Wave Efficiency 293
6-3 Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna 299
6-4 Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna 310
6-5 Circular Microstrip Patch 313
6-6 Circularly Polarized Patch Antennas 316
6-7 Compact Patches 319
6-8 Directly Fed Stacked Patches 323
6-9 Aperture-Coupled Stacked Patches 325
6-10 Patch Antenna Feed Networks 327
6-11 Series-Fed Array 329
6-12 Microstrip Dipole 330
6-13 Microstrip Franklin Array 332
6-14 Microstrip Antenna Mechanical Properties 333
References 334
7 Horn Antennas 336
7-1 Rectangular Horn (Pyramidal) 337
7-1.1 Beamwidth 341
7-1.2 Optimum Rectangular Horn 343
7-1.3 Designing to Given Beamwidths 346
7-1.4 Phase Center 347
7-2 Circular-Aperture Horn 348
7-2.1 Beamwidth 350
7-2.2 Phase Center 352
7-3 Circular (Conical) Corrugated Horn 353
7-3.1 Scalar Horn 357
7-3.2 Corrugation Design 357
7-3.3 Choke Horns 358
7-3.4 Rectangular Corrugated Horns 359
7-4 Corrugated Ground Plane 359
7-5 Gaussian Beam 362
7-6 Ridged Waveguide Horns 365
7-7 Box Horn 372
7-8 T-Bar-Fed Slot Antenna 374
7-9 Multimode Circular Horn 376
7-10 Biconical Horn 376
References 378
8 Reflector Antennas 380
8-1 Paraboloidal Reflector Geometry 381
8-2 Paraboloidal Reflector Aperture Distribution Losses 383
8-3 Approximate Spillover and Amplitude Taper Trade-offs 385
8-4 Phase Error Losses and Axial Defocusing 387
8-5 Astigmatism 389
8-6 Feed Scanning 390
8-7 Random Phase Errors 393
8-8 Focal Plane Fields 396
8-9 Feed Mismatch Due to the Reflector 397
8-10 Front-to-Back Ratio 399
8-11 Offset-Fed Reflector 399
8-12 Reflections from Conic Sections 405
8-13 Dual-Reflector Antennas 408
8-13.1 Feed Blockage 410
8-13.2 Diffraction Loss 413
8-13.3 Cassegrain Tolerances 414
8-14 Feed and Subreflector Support Strut Radiation 416
8-15 Gain/Noise Temperature of a Dual Reflector 421
8-16 Displaced-Axis Dual Reflector 421
8-17 Offset-Fed Dual Reflector 424
8-18 Horn Reflector and Dragonian Dual Reflector 427
8-19 Spherical Reflector 429
8-20 Shaped Reflectors 432
8-20.1 Cylindrical Reflector Synthesis 433
8-20.2 Circularly Symmetrical Reflector Synthesis 434
8-20.3 Doubly Curved Reflector for Shaped Beams 437
8-20.4 Dual Shaped Reflectors 439
8-21 Optimization Synthesis of Shaped and Multiple-Beam Reflectors 442
References 443
9 Lens Antennas 447
9-1 Single Refracting Surface Lenses 448
9-2 Zoned Lenses 451
9-3 General Two-Surface Lenses 454
9-4 Single-Surface or Contact Lenses 459
9-5 Metal Plate Lenses 461
9-6 Surface Mismatch and Dielectric Losses 463
9-7 Feed Scanning of a Hyperboloidal Lens 464
9-8 Dual-Surface Lenses 465
9-8.1 Coma-Free Axisymmetric Dielectric Lens 466
9-8.2 Specified Aperture Distribution Axisymmetric Dielectric Lens 468
9-9 Bootlace Lens 470
9-10 Luneburg Lens 472
References 472
10 Traveling-Wave Antennas 474
10-1 General Traveling Waves 475
10-1.1 Slow Wave 478
10-1.2 Fast Waves (Leaky Wave Structure) 480
10-2 Long Wire Antennas 481
10-2.1 Beverage Antenna 481
10-2.2 V Antenna 482
10-2.3 Rhombic Antenna 483
10-3 Yagi–Uda Antennas 485
10-3.1 Multiple-Feed Yagi–Uda Antennas 492
10-3.2 Resonant Loop Yagi–Uda Antennas 495
10-4 Corrugated Rod (Cigar) Antenna 497
10-5 Dielectric Rod (Polyrod) Antenna 499
10-6 Helical Wire Antenna 502
10-6.1 Helical Modes 503
10-6.2 Axial Mode 504
10-6.3 Feed of a Helical Antenna 506
10-6.4 Long Helical Antenna 507
10-6.5 Short Helical Antenna 508
10-7 Short Backfire Antenna 509
10-8 Tapered Slot Antennas 512
10-9 Leaky Wave Structures 516
References 518
11 Frequency-Independent Antennas 521
Spiral Antennas 522
11-1 Modal Expansion of Antenna Patterns 524
11-2 Archimedean Spiral 526
11-3 Equiangular Spiral 527
11-4 Pattern Analysis of Spiral Antennas 530
11-5 Spiral Construction and Feeding 535
11-5.1 Spiral Construction 535
11-5.2 Balun Feed 536
11-5.3 Infinite Balun 538
11-5.4 Beamformer and Coaxial Line Feed 538
11-6 Spiral and Beamformer Measurements 538
11-7 Feed Network and Antenna Interaction 540
11-8 Modulated Arm Width Spiral 541
11-9 Conical Log Spiral Antenna 543
11-10 Mode 2 Conical Log Spiral Antenna 549
11-11 Feeding Conical Log Spirals 550
Log-Periodic Antennas 550
11-12 Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna 551
11-12.1 Feeding a Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna 556
11-12.2 Phase Center 558
11-12.3 Elevation Angle 559
11-12.4 Arrays of Log-Periodic Dipole Antennas 560
11-13 Other Log-Periodic Types 561
11-14 Log-Periodic Antenna Feeding Paraboloidal Reflector 563
11-15 V Log-periodic Array 567
11-16 Cavity-Backed Planar Log-Periodic Antennas 569
References 571
12 Phased Arrays 573
12-1 Fixed Phase Shifters (Phasers) 574
12-2 Quantization Lobes 578
12-3 Array Errors 580
12-4 Nonuniform and Random Element Existence Arrays 582
12-4.1 Linear Space Tapered Array 582
12-4.2 Circular Space Tapered Array 584
12-4.3 Statistically Thinned Array 587
12-5 Array Element Pattern 588
12-6 Feed Networks 590
12-6.1 Corporate Feed 590
12-6.2 Series Feed 592
12-6.3 Variable Power Divider and Phase Shifter 592
12-6.4 Butler Matrix 594
12-6.5 Space Feeding 596
12-6.6 Tapered Feed Network with Uniform-Amplitude Subarrays 597
12-7 Pattern Null Formation in Arbitrary Array 599
12-8 Phased Array Application to Communication Systems 601
12-9 Near-Field Measurements on Phased Arrays 602
References 604
Index 607
About the Author :
THOMAS A. MILLIGAN is Chief Engineer for Milligan & Associates, Inc., a consulting firm that offers wireless communications solutions. He previously was principal engineer at Lockheed Martin Astronautics, where he specialized in microwave antenna design and analysis. Mr. Milligan is the author of the first edition of Modern Antenna Design and coauthor of Antenna Engineering Using Physical Optics.
