Biophysical Bone Behaviour: Principles and Applications is the culmination of efforts to relate the biophysical phenomena in bone to bone growth and electrical behavior. Behari develops a bridge between physics and biology of bone leading to its clinical applications, primarily electro stimulations in fracture healing and osteoporosis. The book is based upon authors own research work and his review articles in the area, and updated with the latest research results. - The first book dedicated to biophysical bone behavior
- Develops the relationship between the biophysics and biology of bone into an integral unit
- Spans basic biophysical studies and clinical applications
- Links the various topics together to give readers a holistic understanding of the area
- Presents all major research findings about bone and biophysics
Readers can access the full list of references at the companion website: http://www.wiley.com/go/behari
Table of Contents:
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
About the Book xv
1 Elements of Bone Biophysics 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Structural Aspect of Bone 3
1.2.1 Elementary Constituents of Bone 7
1.2.2 The Fibers 8
1.2.3 Collagen Synthesis 11
1.2.4 Bone Matrix (Inorganic Component) 12
1.3. Classification of Bone Tissues 17
1.3.1 Compact Bone 17
1.3.2 Fine Cancellous Bone 17
1.3.3 Coarse Cancellous Bone 18
1.4 Lamellation 18
1.4.1 The Cement 23
1.5 Role of Bone Water 23
1.6 Bone Metabolism 26
1.6.1 Ca and P Metabolism 26
1.7 Osteoporosis 27
1.8 Bone Cells 29
1.8.1 Osteoblasts 30
1.8.2 Osteoblast Differentiation 31
1.8.3 Osteoclast 32
1.8.4 Osteoclast Differentiation 33
1.8.5 The Osteocytes 36
1.8.6 Mathematical Formulation 36
1.9 Bone Remodeling 38
1.10 Biochemical Markers of Bone and Collagen 50
1.11 Summary 51
2 Piezoelectricity in Bone 53
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Piezoelectric Effect 54
2.2.1 Properties Relating to Piezoelectricity 57
2.3 Physical Concept of Piezoelectricity 59
2.3.1 Piezoelectric Theory 60
2.4 Sound Propagated in a Piezoelectric Medium 61
2.5 Equivalent Single-Crystal Structure of Bone 62
2.6 Piezoelectric Properties of Dry Compact Bones 62
2.6.1 Piezoelectric Properties of Dry and Wet Collagens 64
2.6.2 Measurement of Piezoelectricity in Bone 65
2.7 Bone Structure and Piezoelectric Properties 69
2.8 Piezoelectric Transducers 71
2.8.1 Transducer Vibration 73
2.8.2 Transverse-Effect Transducer 73
2.9 Ferroelectricity in Bone 74
2.9.1 Experimental Details 75
2.10 Two-Phase Mineral-Filled Plastic Composites 76
2.10.1 Material Properties 76
2.10.2 Bone Mechanical Properties 81
2.11 Mechanical Properties of Cancellous Bone: Microscopic View 93
2.12 Ultrasound and Bone Behavior 94
2.12.1 Biochemical Coupling 94
2.13 Traveling Wave Characteristics 96
2.14 Viscoelasticity in Bone 98
2.15 Discussion 100
3 Bioelectric Phenomena in Bone 103
3.1 Macroscopic Stress-Generated Potentials of Moist Bone 103
3.2 Mechanism of Biopotential Generation 103
3.3 Stress-Generated Potentials (SGPs) in Bone 107
3.4 Streaming Potentials and Currents of Normal Cortical Bone: Macroscopic Approach 108
3.4.1 Streaming Potential and Current Dependence on Bone Structure and Composition: Macroscopic View 112
3.5 Microscopic Potentials and Models of SP Generation in Bone 113
3.6 Stress-Generated Fields of Trabecular Bone 114
3.7 Biopotential and Electrostimulation in Bone 116
3.7.1 Electrode Implantation 116
3.7.2 Control Data 116
3.7.3 Pulsating Fields 119
3.7.4 dc Stimulation 119
3.7.5 Electromagnetic Field (50 Hz) Stimulation Along with Radio Frequency Field Coupling 119
3.7.6 Continuous Fields 120
3.7.7 Impedance Measurements 125
3.8 Origin of Various Bioelectric Potentials in Bone 126
4 Solid State Bone Behavior 129
4.1 Introduction 129
4.2 Electrical Conduction in Bone 130
4.2.1 Bone as a Semiconductor 130
4.2.2 Bone Dielectric Properties 133
4.3 Microwave Conductivity in Bone 138
4.4 Electret Phenomena 145
4.4.1 Thermo Electret 146
4.4.2 Electro Electret 146
4.4.3 Magneto Electret 146
4.5 Hall Effect in Bone 147
4.5.1 Hall Effect, Hall Mobility and Drift Mobility 149
4.5.2 Magnetic Field Dependence of the Hall Coefficient in Apatite 150
4.6 Photovoltaic Effect 152
4.7 PN Junction Phenomena in Bone 152
4.7.1 Breakdown Phenomenon of PN Junction 155
4.7.2 Behavior of the PN Junction Under IR and UV Conditions 157
4.7.3 Photoelectromagnetic (PEM) Effect 157
4.7.4 Life Time of Charge Carriers 159
4.8 Bone Electrical Parameters in Microstrip Line Configuration 161
4.8.1 Theoretical Formulation 162
4.9 Bone Physical Properties and Ultrasonic Transducer 163
5 Bioelectric Phenomena: Electrostimulation and Fracture Healing 173
5.1 Introduction 173
5.2 Biophysics of Fracture 174
5.2.1 Mechanisms of Bone Fracture 174
5.2.2 Mechanical Stimulation to Enhance Fracture Repair 177
5.3 Bone Fracture Healing 180
5.3.1 Histologic Fractures 181
5.3.2 Growth Hormone (GH) Effect on Fracture Healing 185
5.3.3 Biological Principles 186
5.3.4 Cell Array Model for Repairing or Remodeling Bone 186
5.4 Electromagnetic Field and Fracture Healing 187
5.4.1 Methods in Bone Fracture Healing 188
5.4.2 Stimulation by Constant Direct Current Sources 190
5.4.3 Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs) 195
5.4.4 Inductive Coupling 199
5.4.5 Capacitive Coupling 201
5.4.6 Mechanism of Action 204
5.4.7 Mechanism of PEMF Interaction at the Cellular Level 208
5.4.8 Spatial Coherence 211
5.4.9 Effects of EMFs on Signal Transduction in Bone 212
5.4.10 The Biophysical Interaction Concept of Window 212
5.4.11 Mechanisms for EMF Effects on Bone Signal Transduction 215
5.5 Venous Pressure and Bone Formation 216
5.6 Ultrasound and Bone Repair 217
5.6.1 Ultrasonic Attenuation 221
5.6.2 Measurements on Human Tibiae 223
5.6.3 Measurements on Models 223
5.7 SNR Analysis for EMF, US and SGP Signals 225
5.7.1 Ununited Fractures 227
5.8 Low Energy He-Ne Laser Irradiation and Bone Repair 229
5.9 Electrostimulation of Osteoporosis 231
5.10 Other Techniques: Use of Nanoparticles 236
5.11 Possible Mechanism Involved in Osteoporosis 237
6 Biophysical Parameters Affecting Osteoporosis 241
6.1 Introduction 241
6.1.1 Osteoporosis in Women 245
6.1.2 Osteoporosis in Men 245
6.1.3 Osteoporosis Types 247
6.1.4 Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) 248
6.1.5 Effect of Microgravity 248
6.1.6 Bone Loss 249
6.1.7 Secondary Osteoporosis 252
6.2 Senile and Postmenopausal Osteoporosis 252
6.2.1 Type of Bone Pathogenesis 254
6.2.2 Risk Factors for Fractures 256
6.2.3 Fracture Risk Models 257
6.3 Theoretical Analysis of Fracture Prediction by Distant BMD Measurement Sites 259
6.4 Markers of Osteoporosis 261
6.4.1 Structural Changes 261
6.4.2 Biophysical Parameters 262
6.5 Osteoporosis Interventions 264
6.6 Role of Estrogen 264
6.6.1 Steroid-Induced Osteoporosis 264
6.6.2 Impact of HRT on Osteoporotic Fractures 270
6.6.3 Role of Estrogen–Progesterone Combination 271
6.7 Glucocorticoid 272
6.8 Vitamin D and Osteoporosis 274
6.9 Role of Calcitonin 279
6.10 Calcitonin and Glucocorticoids 281
6.11 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) 281
6.12 Role of Prostaglandins 284
6.13 Thiazide Diuretics (TD) 285
6.14 Effects of Fluoride 286
6.15 Role of Growth Hormone (GH) 288
6.16 Cholesterol 289
6.17 Interleukin 1 (IL-1) 289
6.18 Bisphosphonates (BPs) 290
6.19 Adipocyte Hormones 291
6.20 Mechanism of Action of Antiresorptive Agents 293
6.21 Genetic Studies of Osteoporosis 294
6.22 Nutritional Aspects in Osteoporosis 295
6.22.1 Biochemical Markers 295
6.22.2 Salt Intake 295
6.22.3 Calcium 296
6.22.4 Protein 300
6.22.5 Lactose 301
6.22.6 Phosphorous 301
6.22.7 Lymphotoxin 302
6.22.8 Dietary Fiber, Oxalic Acid and Phytic Acid 302
6.22.9 Alcohol 302
6.22.10 Caffeine 303
6.22.11 Other Factors 305
6.23 Osteoporosis: Prevention and Treatment 305
6.23.1 Gene Therapy 308
6.24 Non-invasive Techniques 309
6.24.1 Electrical Stimulation and Osteoporosis 309
6.24.2 Ultrasonic Methods 311
6.25 Conclusion 315
7 Non-Invasive Techniques used to Measure Osteoporosis 317
7.1 Introduction 317
7.2 Measurement of the Mineral Content 320
7.2.1 Clinical Measurements 322
7.2.2 Calibration and Accuracy 322
7.2.3 Limitations 323
7.2.4 Singh Index 324
7.3 Bone Densitometric Methods 325
7.3.1 Radiographic Methods 328
7.4 X-ray Tomography 328
7.5 Skeleton Roentgenology 329
7.6 Metacarpal Index 330
7.7 Analysis of Radiographic Methods 332
7.8 Direct Photon Absorption Method 333
7.8.1 Theory 333
7.8.2 Clinical Applications 336
7.9 Limitations of the Method 338
7.10 Dual-Photon Absorptiometry (DPA) 339
7.10.1 Theoretical Background 341
7.10.2 Procedure 342
7.10.3 Nature of Attenuation 342
7.10.4 Reproducibility 343
7.11 Computed Tomography (CT) 344
7.11.1 Instrumentation and Clinical Procedure 344
7.11.2 Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT) 346
7.12 Modification of CT Methods 349
7.12.1 CT Methods: Benefits and Risks 350
7.12.2 Discussion 351
7.13 Methods Based on Compton Scattering 352
7.13.1 Technique 354
7.14 Coherent and Compton Scattering 355
7.14.1 Clinical Applications 358
7.15 Dual Energy Technique 360
7.15.1 Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) 360
7.15.2 Theoretical Formulation and Instrumentation 361
7.15.3 Technical Details 363
7.15.4 Simulation Studies 366
7.16 Neutron Activation Analysis 369
7.16.1 Technique 369
7.16.2 Site Choice 371
7.16.3 Dose 372
7.16.4 Limitations 372
7.17 Infrasound Method for Bone Mass Measurements 372
7.17.1 The Ultrasonic Measurement: Concepts and Technique 373
7.17.2 Stress Wave Propagation in Bone and its Clinical Use 376
7.17.3 Measurement of Bone Parameters 378
7.17.4 Ultrasound System 379
7.17.5 Procedure for Obtaining Patient Data 379
7.17.6 Analysis of Patient Data 380
7.17.7 Verification of the In Vivo Bone Parameters 381
7.18 Other Techniques 383
7.18.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 383
7.19 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Techniques 386
References 389
Index 479
About the Author :
Jitendra Behari, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Jitendra Behari is a Professor of at the School of Environmental Sciences at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His main research interests are in the area of bioelectromagnetics, with emphasis on applications of microwaves and solid state physics techniques in environmental sciences, which includes soil moisture measurement. He has generated over one hundred research publications, four patents, and has developed several instruments in the electromagnetic field. Previous appointments include Adjunct Faculty at Michigan State University and three years with the biomedical engineering unit of IIT and AIIMS, New Delhi. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunications Engineers and the Ultrasonic Society of India, and is a Senior Member of the IEEE. He has served on the executive bodies of the Biomedical Engineering Society of India, the Indian Society of Biomechanics, the Indian Physics Association, the Indian Vacuum Society and the Indian chapters of the IEEE's Electron Device and Microwave Theory and Techniques societies. Behari has also been a member of numerous other commissions and societies, including: Commission K of Union Radio Scientifique Internationale, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, the Electromagnetics Academy (USA), and the Indian Science Congress Association. He has in the past received Fulbright and University Grant Commission fellowships. Behari holds a PhD in Physics and was conferred an honorary D.Sc. in Bioelectromagnetics from Ansted University, UK at Penang, Malaysia.
