Risk Communication: A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks

A fully updated edition of the preeminent book on risk communication For more than a decade, Risk Communication: A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, Safety, and Health Risks has been a trusted compendium of strategies and guidance for effectively conveying risk information. Managers, scientists, engineers, students, communication specialists, healthcare professionals, agency representatives, and consultants in more than twenty countries have benefited from its contemporary, practical advice on what to do and what to avoid for successful risk communication. Now in its Fourth Edition, the handbook has been updated with expanded coverage of laws, approaches, messages, and technology-based applications such as social media, as well as all-new information on international risk communication. The handbook guides readers on: Understanding Risk Communication—Approaches to communicating risk; laws that mandate risk communication; constraints to effective risk communication; ethical issues; and principles of risk communication Planning the Risk Communication Effort—Determine purpose and objectives; analyze your audience; develop your message; determine appropriate methods; set a schedule; and develop a communication plan Putting Risk Communication into Action—Information materials; visual representation of risks; face-to-face communication; working with the media; stakeholder participation; and technology-assisted communication Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts—Why it's important to evaluate risk communication efforts; types of evaluation; and conducting the evaluation Special Cases in Risk Communication—Emergency risk communication and international risk communication Combining in-depth scientific underpinnings and the greatest breadth of information available, this book makes the topic of risk communication accessible to those who need it most. It is intended as an introduction to the field as well as a refresher and reference book for those communicating environmental, safety, and health risks in government, industry, and academia.

Table of Contents:
Preface xv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 To Begin 2 The Risk Communication Process 5 Audiences, Situations, and Purposes 6 PART I UNDERSTANDING RISK COMMUNICATION. 2 APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATING RISK 11 Communication Process Approach 12 National Research Council’s Approach 12 Mental Models Approach 13 Crisis Communication Approach 14 Convergence Communication Approach 15 Three-Challenge Approach 15 Social Constructionist Approach 16 Hazard Plus Outrage Approach 17 Mental Noise Approach 17 Social Network Contagion Approach 18 Social Amplification of Risk Approach 18 Social Trust Approach 19 Evolutionary Theory Approach 20 3 LAWS THAT MANDATE RISK COMMUNICATION 23 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 24 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 25 Executive Order 12898, Environmental Justice in Minority Populations 25 Executive Order 13045, Reduce Environmental Health and Safety Risks to Children 28 National Environmental Policy Act 28 Natural Resource Damage Assessment 29 Occupational Safety and Health Act 30 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 32 Risk Management Program Rule 32 Privacy Rule 32 Other Government Inducements 33 International Standards 33 North American Standards 33 Grants 34 4 CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE RISK COMMUNICATION 37 Constraints on the Communicator 37 Organizational Constraints 37 Emotional Constraints 43 Constraints from the Audience 45 Hostility and Outrage 45 Panic and Denial 47 Apathy 48 Mistrust of Risk Assessment 48 Disagreements on the Acceptable Magnitude of Risk 49 Lack of Faith in Science and Institutions 50 Learning Difficulties 50 Constraints for Both Communicator and Audience 51 Stigma 51 Stability of the Knowledge Base 52 5 ETHICAL ISSUES 57 Social Ethics 58 The Sociopolitical Environment’s Influence 58 The Use of the Risk Idiom 60 Fairness of the Risk 61 Consequences of Multiple Meanings 62 The Issue of Stigma 63 Organizational Ethics 63 Legitimacy of Representation 64 Designation of Primary Audience 65 Releasing Information 66 Attitude toward Compliance with Regulations 67 Personal Ethics 68 Using Persuasion 68 The Role of the Communicator 68 Organizational Ethics or Personal Ethics? 69 6 PRINCIPLES OF RISK COMMUNICATION 71 Principles of Process 72 Know Your Communication Limits and Purpose 72 Whenever Possible, Pretest Your Message 73 Communicate Early, Often, and Fully 73 Remember That Perception is Reality 74 Principles of Presentation 74 Know Your Audience 75 Do Not Limit Yourself to One Form or One Method 75 Simplify Language and Presentation, Not Content 75 Be Objective, Not Subjective 75 Communicate Honestly, Clearly, and Compassionately 76 Listen and Deal with Specific Concerns 76 Convey the Same Information to All Segments of Your Audience 77 Deal with Uncertainty 77 Principles for Comparing Risks 78 Use Analogies, but Do Not Trivialize 79 Use Ranges 79 Compare to Standards 79 Compare to Other Estimates of the Same Risk 80 Compare Traits 80 Do Not Compare Risks with Different Levels of Associated Outrage 80 Explain Reductions in Magnitude 81 PART II PLANNING THE RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORT. 7 DETERMINE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES 85 Factors That Influence Purpose and Objectives 86 Legal Issues 86 Organizational Requirements 86 The Risk Itself 87 Audience Requirements 88 Checklist for Determining Purpose and Objectives 89 8 ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE 91 Begin with Purpose and Objectives 92 Choose a Level of Analysis 92 Determine Key Audience Characteristics 95 Determine How to Find Audience Analysis Information 95 Incorporate Audience Analysis Information into Risk Communication Efforts 101 Checklist for Audience Analysis 102 9 DEVELOP YOUR MESSAGE 105 Common Pitfalls 106 Information People Want 107 Mental Models 108 Message Mapping 111 Health Risk Communication 111 Crisis Communication 114 Checklist for Message Development 115 10 DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE METHODS 117 Information Materials 117 Visual Representation of Risk 118 Face-to-Face Communication 119 Working with the News Media 120 Stakeholder Participation 122 Technology-Assisted Communication 123 Checklist for Determining Methods 125 11 SET A SCHEDULE 127 Legal Requirements 127 Organizational Requirements 127 The Scientific Process 128 Ongoing Activities 128 Audience Needs 130 Checklist for Setting Schedules 132 12 DEVELOP A COMMUNICATION PLAN 133 What to Include in a Communication Plan 133 Developing Risk Communication Strategies 136 Storyboarding as a Planning Tool 136 Communication Planning Using the CERCLA Approach 137 Using an Audience Focus 137 Strategic Planning for Risk Communication 140 Checklist for Communication Planning 140 PART III PUTTING RISK COMMUNICATION INTO ACTION. 13 INFORMATION MATERIALS 145 Constructing Information Materials 145 Information to Be Included 145 Organizing Material for Information Materials 148 Language for Information Materials 149 Narrative Style in Information Materials 150 Guidelines for Specific Types of Information Materials 151 Newsletters 151 Pamphlets, Booklets, and Fact Sheets 152 Posters, Advertisements, and Displays 153 Articles 154 Technical Reports 154 Checklist for Information Materials 155 14 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF RISKS 159 Design Visuals for Specific Audiences and Uses 160 Match the Visual Portrayal to the Information to Be Conveyed 162 Pretest Graphics with Those Who Will Use Them 165 Using Visuals to Personalize Risk Information 168 Comparing Risks in Visual Formats 168 Depicting Probability and Uncertainty 170 Presenting Probability 171 Presenting Uncertainty 176 Probability Plus Uncertainty 176 Warning Labels 179 Consider Using Action Levels 182 Ethical Portrayal of Risk Information 184 Using Visual Information in Group Decision Making 187 Checklist for Visual Representation of Risk 187 15 FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION 191 Constructing Face-to-Face Messages 192 Choose the Appropriate Spokesperson 192 Give the Audience Something to Take Away 194 Reinforce Your Message with Visual Aids 195 Speak in the Language of the Audience 195 Do Not Promise What You Cannot Deliver 195 Guidelines for Specific Types of Face-to-Face Communication 196 Speaking Engagements 196 Speakers Bureaus 198 Tours and Demonstrations 198 Video Presentations 199 Audience Interviews 201 Information Fairs 202 Training 202 Checklist for Face-to-Face Communication 203 16 WORKING WITH THE MEDIA 207 The Roles of Mass Media in Risk Communication 207 Media Contrasted with Other Stakeholders 209 Productive Interaction, Not Polarization 209 Understand "Cultural" Differences 210 The Media are Event-Focused 210 Certain Kinds of Risks Get More Coverage 211 Journalistic Independence and Deadlines Affect Content 211 The Need for Balance Invites Opposing Views 212 Information is Condensed, Simplified, and Personalized 212 Guidelines for Specific Situations 212 Develop Relationships with Local and Regional Media Representatives 213 Know When to Approach Media Representatives or When They May Approach You 213 Prepare Messages and Materials Carefully 214 Know Where to Draw the Line 215 Put Your Message in Terms the Reporter's Audience Can Understand 216 Put the Risk in Perspective 216 Respect the Reporter’s Deadlines 217 Maintain Ethical Standards of Disclosure 217 Take Action When Inaccurate or Misleading Material is Published or Aired 218 Using Technology 218 Distribution Services 218 Video and Audio News Releases 219 Social Media 220 Public Service Announcements 220 Telebriefings 221 Special Case: The Use of Mass Media in Public Health Campaigns 221 Paid Placements or Independent Coverage 222 Guidelines 223 Checklist for Media Approaches 225 17 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION 229 Requirements for Stakeholder Participation 230 Organizational Requirements for Successful Stakeholder Participation 230 Stakeholder Requirements for Successful Participation 231 Guidelines for Specific Types of Stakeholder Participation Activities 232 The Formal Hearing 233 Group Interactions 234 Interactions Involving Risk Assessment 239 Interactions Involving Decision Making 240 Interactions Involving Risk Management 246 Evaluating Stakeholder Participation Based on Your Situation 248 Checklist for Stakeholder Participation 249 18 TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED COMMUNICATION 253 Choosing Technology-Based Applications 253 Computers in the Workplace 254 Computer-Based Training 255 Informing Employees about Risks 257 Web-Delivered and Stand-Alone Multimedia Programs 259 Web Tools, CDs, and DVDs 259 Web and Satellite Broadcasts 261 Social Media and Other Interactive Forums 262 Blogs and Podcasts 264 Social Network Sites 265 Traditional Electronic Forums 269 Interactive Multimedia Programs in Public Places 270 Technology in Care Communication 272 Technology in Consensus Communication 276 Websites 276 Local Area Networks, Extranets, and Bulletin Boards 277 Computers in Centralized Public Locations 277 Tracking and Analyzing Comments and Responses 278 Facilitating Group Decision Making 279 Technology in Crisis Communication 281 Checklist for Technology-Assisted Communication 282 PART IV EVALUATING RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS. 19 Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts 287 Why Evaluate Risk Communication Efforts? 287 The Meaning of Success 288 Types of Evaluation 290 Conducting the Evaluation 292 Checklist for Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts 294 PART V SPECIAL CASES IN RISK COMMUNICATION. 20 EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION 299 Understanding Emergency Risk Communication 300 Emotions and Public Actions 300 Credibility and Trust 302 Planning for the Unexpected 304 Preparing Your Organization 304 Teaming with Other Organizations 307 Working with Communities in Advance 308 Determining Appropriate Communication Methods 309 Developing an Emergency Risk Communication Plan 312 Communicating During an Emergency 317 Emergency Operation Centers 319 Working with the Media in an Emergency 319 Answering Questions 322 Communicating After an Emergency 323 21 International Risk Communication 329 Recognize the Similarities 330 Account for Cultural Differences 330 Look for "Your" Risk in Other Countries 331 Plan for Cross-Country Communication 332 References 334 Additional Resources 336 RESOURCES 335 GLOSSARY 343 INDEX 347 ABOUT THE AUTHORS.

About the Author :
Regina E. Lundgren is an independent consultant with more than twenty years of experience in communicating environmental, safety, and health risks to lay audiences. The recipient of national and international awards, she developed the risk communication plan for the most sophisticated cancer cluster investigation in the nation's history and one of the first state-level public health emergency risk communication plans. Andrea H. Mcmakin is a marketing and communications specialist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory. For more than twenty years, she's been involved with risk communication programs in national and global security, climate change, health and environmental impacts, worker chemical exposure, and risk perception research. Her work has been published and cited in technical journals, scientific and trade publications, and major regional newspapers.