A comprehensive introduction to research methods and best practices for designing,conducting, interpreting, and reporting findings This text is designed to develop in students a passion for conducting research and an understanding of the practical value of systematic information- gathering and decision-making. It features step-by-step coverage of the research process including research design, statistical considerations, and guidance on writing up and presenting results.
Recognized leaders in the field—authors Bart Weathington, Christopher Cunningham, and David Pittenger—present:
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Introductions to multiple research designs—including single-participant, multi-group, longitudinal, correlational, and experimental designs—accompanied by examples
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Bibliographic research and methods for appropriate sampling
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Identifying, developing, and evaluating reliable and valid approaches to measurement
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The issues and steps common to all single-factor and multifactor studies, as well as single-subject and nonexperimental methods
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How to summarize research in writing that conforms to the editorial guidelines of the American Psychological Association
A comprehensive review of research methods and the statistical concepts that support them, Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences offers the best techniques for studying behavior and social phenomena.
Table of Contents:
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
Part I Overview of the Research Process 1
Chapter 1 Research and the Social Sciences 3
Introduction 3
Why Is Understanding Research Methods So Important? 6
The Role of Science in Everyday Life 6
The Scientific Method 8
Brief History of the Science of Behavior 8
Bacon’s Legacy 13
Other Important Historical Figures 13
Assumptions of Science 16
Requirements for Scientific Research 17
Research in Action: The Case of Facilitated Communication 23
Chapter Summary 26
Chapter Glossary for Review 29
Chapter References 30
Chapter 2 Ethics and Research 32
Introduction 32
What Is Ethics? 34
Approaches to Ethical Analysis 36
Making Ethical Decisions 41
The Ethical Code of the American Psychological Association 42
Seeking Approval for Research: The Institutional Review Board 44
Milgram’s Experiment Revisited 52
Research with Animals 56
Research in Action: Ethical Dilemmas 58
Chapter Summary 62
Chapter Glossary for Review 64
Chapter References 64
Chapter 3 The Foundations of Research 66
Introduction 66
The Hypothesis in Research 67
Types of Hypotheses 72
Measurement 78
Reliability of Measurement 84
Validity of Measurement 87
Populations and Samples 90
Research in Action: Measuring Sexism 94
Chapter Summary 96
Chapter Glossary for Review 97
Chapter References 100
Chapter 4 An Overview of Empirical Methods 101
Introduction 101
Internal, Statistical Conclusion, and External Validity 102
Survey of Empirical Methods 113
Intact Groups Designs and Quasi-Experimental Studies 117
Surveys 120
Correlational Studies 121
Single-Participant Research Methods 122
Meta-Analysis 124
Computers and Statistics 126
Research in Action: Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 128
Chapter Summary 133
Chapter Glossary for Review 135
Chapter References 137
Part II Nuts and Bolts of Research 139
Chapter 5 Writing the Research Report 141
Introduction 141
What Do Readers Appreciate in Good Writing? 143
Elements of APA Style 143
Special Grammatical Issues 147
Academic Integrity 152
Parts of the Research Report 156
Proofreading 173
Chapter Summary 174
Chapter References 174
Chapter 6 Reviewing the Literature and Forming Hypotheses 175
Introduction 175
Bibliographic Research 175
The Internet 179
Developing a Search Strategy 181
Searching the Literature: The Library 182
Research in Action: Does Listening to Mozart Make You Smarter? 186
Statistical Inference and Testing Hypotheses 190
Chapter Summary 193
Chapter Glossary for Review 194
Chapter References 194
Chapter 7 Sampling: The First Steps in Research 196
Introduction 196
The Nature of Samples 197
Probability Sampling 199
Sampling Methods 201
Nonprobability Sampling 205
Central Limit Theorem 207
Applications of the Central Limit Theorem 211
Sources of Bias and Error: A Reprise 217
Research in Action: Trends in HIV-Related Risk Behaviors 220
Chapter Summary 224
Chapter Glossary for Review 225
Chapter References 227
Chapter 8 Creating and Using Assessments, Surveys, and Objective Measures 228
Introduction 228
Purpose of Measurement 228
Caveat Assessor 229
Creating a Measurement Scale and Developing a Data Collection Strategy 231
Interviews, Questionnaires, and Attitude Surveys 232
Question Response Formats 236
Writing Good Questionnaire and Survey Items 241
Determining the Sample Size for a Survey 246
Naturalistic Observation 249
Research in Action: Analysis of Assaults 255
Chapter Summary 260
Chapter Glossary for Review 261
Chapter References 262
Chapter 9 A Model for Research Design 265
Introduction 265
A Model for Research Design 266
What Is the Independent Variable? 272
What Is the Dependent Variable? 274
Are There Any Confounding Variables? 277
What Are the Research Hypotheses? 279
Mathematical Hypotheses 280
Evaluating Hypotheses 282
Evaluating Hypotheses: Practical Matters 284
Research in Action: Sex Differences and Memory for Emotional Events 289
Research in Action: Changing Attitudes by Writing Essays 290
Chapter Summary 291
Chapter Glossary for Review 293
Chapter References 295
Part III Common Research Designs 297
Chapter 10 Correlational Research 299
Introduction 299
Conceptual Review of Correlation 300
Pearson’s r 302
Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient 302
Factors That Corrupt a Correlation Coefficient 304
Sample Size and the Correlation Coefficient 308
Applications of the Correlation Coefficient 310
Regression Analysis 315
Introduction to Mediation and Moderation 317
Regression to the Mean 318
Research in Action: Searching Short-Term Memory 321
Statistics behind the Research 323
Chapter Summary 331
Chapter Glossary for Review 333
Chapter References 334
Chapter 11 Between-Subjects Designs 335
Introduction 335
Student’s t-Ratio for Independent Groups 336
Review of Hypothesis Testing 338
Testing Statistical Hypotheses 340
Common Errors in the Interpretation of p 348
The Power of a Test 350
Estimating Sample Size 355
Research in Action: Word Meaning and Memory 357
Statistics behind the Research 359
Chapter Summary 368
Chapter Glossary for Review 369
Chapter References 369
Chapter 12 Single-Variable Between-Subjects Research 371
Introduction 371
Independent Variable 372
Cause and Effect 374
Gaining Control over the Variables 375
The General Linear Model 379
Components of Variance 382
The F-Ratio 384
H0 and H1 387
F-Ratio Sampling Distribution 388
Summarizing and Interpreting ANOVA Results 389
Effect Size and Power 391
Multiple Comparisons of the Means 392
Research in Action: Detecting Lies 396
Statistics behind the Research 398
Chapter Summary 403
Chapter Glossary for Review 404
Chapter References 406
Chapter 13 Between-Subjects Factorial Designs 407
Introduction 407
The Logic of the Two-Variable Design 408
Advantages of the Two-Variable Design 409
Factorial Designs: Variables, Levels, and Cells 413
Examples of Factorial Designs 414
Main Effects and Interaction 418
Designing a Factorial Study 426
Identifying Samples and Estimating Sample Size 429
Interpreting the Interaction: Advanced Considerations 431
Research in Action: Reinforcing Creativity 432
Statistics behind the Research 434
Chapter Summary 441
Chapter Glossary for Review 441
Chapter References 442
Chapter 14 Correlated-Groups Designs 443
Introduction 443
Logic of the Correlated-Groups Research Design 444
Repeated-Measures Design 445
Matched-Groups Design 455
Mixed-Model Design 460
Research in Action: Memory for Related Words 461
Statistics behind the Research 463
Chapter Summary 465
Chapter Glossary for Review 468
Chapter References 469
Part IV Special Research Designs 471
Chapter 15 Single-Participant Experiments, Longitudinal Studies, and Quasi-Experimental Designs 473
Introduction 473
Single-Participant Experiments 475
Research in Action: Treatment for Panic Disorder 484
Longitudinal Designs 487
Research in Action: Onset of Bulimia 491
Quasi-Experiments 493
Research in Action: Traffic Laws and Safety 496
Chapter Summary 498
Chapter Glossary for Review 499
Chapter References 499
Chapter 16 Research with Categorical Data 502
Introduction 502
Goodness-of-Fit Test 504
x2 Test of Independence 508
x2 Test of Homogeneity 511
Further Analysis of the x2 513
McNemar Test 516
Research in Action: Long-Term Effects of Childhood Abuse 519
Chapter Summary 522
Chapter Glossary for Review 523
Chapter References 523
Chapter 17 Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research 525
Introduction 525
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research 526
Theory and Perspectives Guiding Qualitative Research 527
Mixing Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Combined 528
Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Data Collection and Analysis 530
Benefits and Challenges of Mixed-Methods Research 537
Sources of Published Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research 541
Research in Action: Gender- and Job-Based Differences in Work Stress 542
Chapter Summary 545
Chapter Glossary for Review 545
Chapter References 546
Appendix A Statistics behind the Research or, “What Was I Supposed to Remember from My Statistics Class Anyway?” 548
Appendix B Statistical Tables 566
Appendix C Answers to Knowledge Check Questions 606
Author Index 637
Subject Index 641
About the Author :
Bart L. Weathington, PhD, is a UC Foundation Associate Professor of Psychology at The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He is an industrial-organizational and sport psychology researcher, teacher, and consultant on applied psychological issues. Christopher J. L. Cunningham, PhD, is a UC Foundation Assistant Professor of Psychology at The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He is actively engaged in industrial-organizational and occupational health psychology research, teaching, and consulting.
David J. Pittenger, PhD, is Dean of the¿College of¿Liberal Arts¿at Marshall University. His primary research interests and publications focus on the partial reinforcement extinction effect, psychometric properties of personality inventories, the coping strategies of caregivers, and ethical issues related to the behavioral sciences.
