Research Essentials: An Introduction to Designs and Practices(Research Methods for the Social Sciences)

This is an accessible and practical introduction to research that addresses the broadest spectrum of research methodologies of interest to the student or new research, from experimental and survey approaches to program evaluation and ethnography. Research Essentials includes key interpretive and qualitative strategies. The book shows the role that research plays in the social sciences and education, followed by an overview of research traditions. It offers practical examples and relevant resources across the disciplines. Other features include study questions, lists of relevant journals, web sites, and organizations.

Table of Contents:
Tables, Figures, and Exhibits xvii Preface xix Introduction xxiii The Editors xxvii The Authors xxix 1 Research Ethics and the Use of Human Participants 1 K. Larson Key Ideas 1 Ethical Standards 3 The Genesis of Research Standards 3 Federal Regulations for Ethical Research 4 Institutional Review Boards 5 Minimizing Risks to Participants 6 Informed Consent 6 Deception 9 Debriefing 11 Confidentiality and Anonymity 12 Publishing Research 13 Social Consequences of Unethical Research 14 Reading and Evaluating Studies 15 Summary 15 Key Terms 15 Further Readings and Resources 16 2 Understanding Literature Reviews 19 G. McAllister and A. Furlong Key Ideas 19 What Is a Literature Review? 20 Basic Elements of a Literature Review 21 Types of Literature Reviews 22 Literature Reviews and Rigor 24 How to Read a Literature Review 25 Value of the Studies 27 Readability 27 Writing a Literature Review 29 Muck About 29 Set Your Parameters 29 Conduct Your Research 30 Analyze the Literature 30 Focus on the Purpose of Your Literature Review 31 Write Up the Literature Review 31 Summary 32 Key Terms 32 Further Readings and Resources 33 3 Essential Elements of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research 35 W. E. Martin Jr. and K. D. Bridgmon Key Ideas 35 Experimental Research Today 36 Essential Elements of Experimental Research 37 Processes of Designing and Conducting Experimental Research 38 Formulating Experimental Conditions and Procedures 41 Reducing Imprecision in Measurement 44 Controlling Extraneous Experimental Influences 47 Experimental Designs 50 Randomized Posttest Only Control Group Design 51 Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design 51 Randomized Multiple Treatments and Control with Pretest Design 51 Randomized Longitudinal Design 51 External Validity 52 Quasi-Experimental Research 54 Nonequivalent Control Group Design 54 Untreated Control Group Design with Dependent Pretest and Posttest Samples Using a Double Pretest 54 Multiple Time-Series Design 55 Summary 56 Key Terms 56 Further Readings and Resources 57 4 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 59 G. Belli Key Ideas 59 Overview of Nonexperimental Research 60 Variables and Their Measurement 61 Defining Variables 62 Phrasing Questions 64 Classifying Nonexperimental Research 64 Classification Based on Purpose (Dimension 1) 65 Classification Based on Time (Dimension 2) 66 Combining Classification Dimensions 68 Causal Explanations and Nonexperimental Studies 71 Requirements for Causality 72 Ruling Out Alternative Hypotheses 73 Analysis and Interpretation in Nonexperimental Studies 75 Summary 76 Key Terms 76 Further Readings and Resources 77 5 A Primer of Survey Methods 79 M. Berends and G. Zottola Key Ideas 79 What Is Survey Research? 80 Surveys You Know 80 The Research Process 81 Choosing a Topic 82 Focusing the Research: Concepts and Constructs 82 Hypotheses, Variables, and Operationalization 82 Independent Versus Dependent Variables 83 Writing Good Survey Questions 84 Piloting and Cognitive Interviews 87 Sampling, Response Rates, and Nonresponse 88 Probability or Random Sampling 89 Simple, Stratified, and Systemic Samples 89 Nonprobability Sampling 90 Response Rates and Nonresponse 91 Is the Framework Intact? 92 Data Reduction 92 Types of Surveys 93 Face-to-Face Interviews 93 Telephone Surveys 94 Mail Surveys 95 Internet and Web-Based Surveys 95 Ethical Issues in Survey Research 96 Ways to Ensure Confidentiality and Increase Anonymity 96 Informed Consent 97 Ethics Beyond Data Collection 98 Summary 98 Key Terms 99 Further Readings and Resources 99 6 Quantitative Data Analysis 103 M. T. Quartaroli Key Ideas 103 What Do Those Numbers Mean? 104 Meanings of Numbers 104 Summarizing Data: Descriptive Statistics 105 Frequency Distributions 105 Distribution Patterns 107 Types of Numerical Data 111 Measures of Central Tendency 113 Measures of Variability 117 Measures of Relative Position 120 Measures of Relationship 122 Descriptive Statistics Are Important 124 Generalizing Results: Inferential Statistics 124 Tests of Significance 125 Selection of the Statistical Tests 126 Using Inferential Statistics for Decision Making 127 Evaluating Reports with Quantitative Data 128 Summary 129 Key Terms 129 Further Readings and Resources 130 7 Understanding Meta-Analyses 131 G. V Glass Key Ideas 131 What Is Meta-Analysis? 132 Meta-Analysis Illustrated 132 Evaluating Meta-Analyses 138 Another Example 140 Summary 143 Key Terms 143 Further Readings and Resources 144 8 Evaluating Historical Research 145 L. M. Hines Key Ideas 145 Basics of Historical Research 146 How Are Questions Posed, or “So What?” 148 Intriguing and Important Questions 148 Filling a Gap 149 Interpretive Differences 149 Exploring Current Policy 150 What Data Are Used, or “How Do You Know?” 151 Primary Sources 152 Secondary Sources 156 What Is the Interpretation, or “Why Do You Think That?” 157 Foci of Historical Studies 157 Perspective on History 159 Categories of Analysis 160 Types of Historical Research 160 Learning More 162 Summary 163 Key Terms 163 Further Readings and Resources 164 9 Case Study Research 165 S. D. Lapan and S. W. J. Armfield Key Ideas 165 Purposes of Program Case Studies 167 Program Case Study Designs 168 One-Shot or Snapshot Design 168 Longitudinal Design 168 Comparison Design 169 Identifying the Case 169 Planning and Conducting Case Studies 170 Case Study Example: The Sentinel Middle School TILE Program 171 Case Study Question 1: Influence on Instructional Planning 173 Case Study Question 2: Student Thinking in Classroom Discussions 174 Common Case Study Characteristics 177 Learning from Case Studies 177 Trusting Case Study Reports 178 Summary 179 Key Terms 179 Further Readings and Resources 179 10 Program Evaluation 181 S. D. Lapan and C. M. Haden Key Ideas 181 What Is Evaluation? 182 The Logic of Evaluation 182 Qualitative Versus Quantitative Data 183 Forms of Evaluation 183 Definition of a Program 184 Purposes of Program Evaluation 185 Program Evaluation History 186 How Is Evaluation Done? 187 Evaluation Agreement 188 Criteria and Standard Selection 188 Measuring Through Data Collection 190 Synthesizing and Reporting Study Results 193 Trusting Program Evaluation Findings 194 Ethics in Evaluation Studies 195 Judging Program Evaluation Studies 196 Evaluator Qualifications 196 Evaluation Planning 197 Evaluation Design 197 Evaluation Process 197 Data Richness 198 Study Validity 198 Study Report 199 Study Use 199 Summary 200 Key Terms 200 Further Readings and Resources 200 11 Ethnography Research 203 F. J. Riemer Key Ideas 203 Groping in the Dark 204 What Is Ethnography Research? 204 Ethnography Is Descriptive 206 Ethnographic Methods 207 Data Collection 209 Risks of Ethnography Research 210 Ethnographic Data Analysis 211 Writing Up Field Notes 213 Writing Up Ethnography Research 214 Problems of Representation 215 Reading Ethnography 217 What Should a Reader Do? 217 Practice Your Reading Skills 218 Summary 218 Key Terms 218 Further Readings and Resources 219 12 Feminism(S): Critique and Transformation 223 R. Lalik and C. B. Felderman Key Ideas 223 Feminism in Academic and Popular Discourse 224 Variability Among Feminisms 225 Waves of Feminism 225 African American Feminists Broaden the Conversation 226 Feminism(s) and the Critique of Science 228 Critique Related to Women’s Participation in Scientific Endeavors 229 Critique Related to the Erasure of Knowledge About Successful Women Scientists 229 Critique Related to the Patriarchal Nature of Science 230 Critique Related to the Epistemology of Science 231 Possibilities for a Feminist Epistemology 232 Feminism(s) and Research Method and Methodology 235 Resisting a Doctrine of Neutrality 235 Interrupting Efforts to Simplify and Universalize Knowledge 236 Studying How Women and Other Marginalized People Experience Life 237 Researching with Intention to Transform Society 238 Summary 239 Key Terms 239 Further Readings and Resources 240 13 Using Multiple Methods Approaches 243 P. A. Schutz, S. L. Nichols and K. A. Rodgers Key Ideas 243 What is Multimethod Research? 244 Potential Benefits of Multimethod Research 245 An Early Comment on the Benefits of Multiple Methods Research 245 Adaptability of Multimethod Research 246 Strength and Quality of Inferencing 248 Summary of Benefits 251 Multimethod Research Design 251 Designs 252 Sampling Schemes 254 Multimethod Sampling 255 Research Design Conclusion 256 Summary 256 Key Terms 257 Further Readings and Resources 257 14 Qualitative Data Analysis 259 M. T. Quartaroli Key Ideas 259 Words, Words, Words—Now What? 260 Organizing the Data 261 Describing the Data 264 Coding the Data 264 How Patterns Emerge 267 Representing the Findings 269 Writing Memos 269 Creating Vignettes 269 Developing Metaphors 269 Creating Diagrams or Displays 270 Building Theory 270 Data Analysis Is Iterative 271 Evaluating Reports with Qualitative Data 271 Summary 273 Key Terms 273 Further Readings and Resources 273 15 Applying Research Methods to Professional Practice 275 D. Hopkins and E. Ahtaridou Key Ideas 275 What Is Action Research? 276 Models of Action Research 278 Kemmis Model 278 Elliott Model 278 Ebbutt Model 280 Methods of Action Research 282 Developing a Focus 283 Practitioner Reflection in Action 283 Data Collection Methods 284 A Framework for Data Analysis 289 Data Collection 289 Validation 289 Interpretation 290 Action 290 Summary 291 Key Terms 292 Further Readings and Resources 292 16 Research, Policy, and Practice: The Great Disconnect 295 D. C. Berliner Key Ideas 295 Origins of Faith and Apostasy in Research as a Guide to Practice 296 Examples of the Problem 298 Case 1 298 Case 2 299 Case 3 300 Case 4 301 Why the Disconnect? 302 The Privacy Problem 302 The Changed Roles Problem 303 The Problem of Complexity in Classrooms and Other Social Settings 303 The Problem of Science When It Delves into the Arts 304 The Problem of Quality in Research 305 The Problem of Relevance 306 The Problem of Accessibility to Ideas by Practitioners 307 The Problems of Stability and Instability in the Education System 307 How Might Things Change? 309 Summary 312 Key Terms 313 References 315 Index 327

About the Author :
STEPHEN D. LAPAN, PHD, is professor in the College of Education at Northern Arizona University and directs its Curriculum and Instruction Doctoral Program. He has conducted research, including program evaluations, and has developed and taught courses in statistics, tests and measurements, program evaluation, action research, introduction to research, and paradigms for research. Currently, he teaches introductory and advanced research courses. MARYLYNN T. QUARTAROLI, EDD, is project director of the NEXUS Math/Science grant to Northern Arizona University project for Science Foundation Arizona. She teaches paradigms of research in education and advanced curriculum seminar classes for Northern Arizona University's Curriculum and Instruction Doctoral Program.