About the Book
"The new edition of Research Methods in Health continues to provide an excellent broad based introduction to the subject. New or expanded sections, for example on the evaluation of complex interventions, mixed research methods, life history interviews, and socio-psychological theories make this third edition well worth purchasing. The content is clearly presented and at a suitable level for its intended audience of health professionals and post-graduate students in health and health-related social sciences." Virginia Berridge, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK "Research Methods in Health provides a comprehensive guide to the variety of methods for studying and assessing health and health services. The book not only covers all the topics you need regarding research methods, but also looks into the wider aspects of health and health services. I especially liked the way the book didn't jump straight into research methods and methodology, but took time to introduce some of the main sociological and psychological concepts and ideas, as well as looking at demography and epidemiology ...Each chapter is introduced in easily understood terms and ends with the main points concisely summarized .
..Throughout the book clear examples are very well used to build on our understanding of key concepts and at the end of the book is a very useful glossary of terms." Conor Hamilton, Student Nurse, Queen's University Belfast, UK "The additional information in this third edition, for example the coverage of mixed research methods and pertinent social science concepts makes the third edition of this book stand out as a preliminary source of information for anyone looking at research and health ...The summary of main points, key questions and key terms are outstanding and allow the book to be adapted into an essential revision tool as well as adding support and a focal point during reading the book." Lisa Perraton, Student Nurse, University of Chester, UK "A very simplified text book of research that guides students through different research designs/methodologies. I think this book must be recommended to every research student." Moses Murandu, Wolverhampton University, UK This bestselling book provides an accessible introduction to the theoretical concepts and descriptive and analytic research methods used in research on health and health services.
The third edition has been thoroughly revised throughout to include updated references and boxed examples, with additional information on key methodological developments, among them: Complex interventions Mixed research methods Psychometrics Secondary data analysis Systematic reviews Pertinent social science concepts The research methods described cover the assessment of health needs, morbidity and mortality trends and rates, costing health services, sampling for survey research, cross-sectional and longitudinal survey design, experimental methods and techniques of group assignment, questionnaire design, interviewing techniques, coding and analysis of quantitative data, methods and analysis of qualitative observational studies, and types of unstructured interviewing. The book is grounded in the author's career as a researcher on health and health service issues, and the valuable experience this has provided in meeting the challenges of research on people and organisations in real life settings.
Research Methods in Health is an essential companion for students and researchers of health and health services, health clinicians and policy-makers with responsibility for applying research findings and judging the soundness of research.
Table of Contents:
Preface Acknowledgements Section 1 - Investigating health services and health: the scope of research Chapter 1:Evaluating health services: multidisciplinary collaboration Introduction Health services research Health technology assessment The assessment of quality Audit Medical audit, clinical audit and quality assurance Evaluation Structure, process and outcome Appropriateness and inappropriateness Outcome and patient based outcome Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 2:Social research on health: sociological and psychological concepts and approaches Introduction Sociological and psychological research on health 1Health and illness The bio-medical model The social model of health Lay definitions of health Lay theories of illness Variations in medical and lay perspectives 2Social factors in illness and responses to illness Social variations in health: structural inequalities Psycho-social stress and responses to stress to include mediators including self-efficacy, control Stigma, normalisation and adjustment The Sick Role and illness behaviour 3Models of health behaviour Health lifestyles Health behaviour Models of health-related actions to include theory of planned behaviour, self-efficacy and control 4Health-related quality of life Theoretical influences on measurement Distinctions between measures of broader health status, quality of life and health related quality of life Patient based outcome measures 5Interactions between health professionals and patients Communication Patients evaluations of health care Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 3:Health needs and their assessment: demography and epidemiology Introduction 1The assessment of health needsHealth needs The need for health and the need for health care Methods of assessing health needs The role of epidemiological and demographic research 2Epidemiology The role of epidemiology Epidemiology research Methods of epidemiology Assessing morbidity, mortality, incidence and prevalence 3The role of demography Demographical methods in relation to assessing need Rates: births and deaths The need to standardise Analyses of survival Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 4:Costing health services: health economics Introduction Health economics Demand, utility and supply Economic appraisal Cost minimisation Cost-effectiveness Cost-benefit analysis Marginal cost Complete costs Event pathways Opportunity cost Discounting Cost-utility analysis Cost-utility analysis and economic valuations of health Costing health services Study methods used for costings Modelling health care costs Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Section II - The philosophy, theory and practice of research Chapter 5:The philosophical framework of measurement Introduction The philosophy of science Paradigms Objectivity and value freedom Deductive and inductive approaches The survival of hypotheses and paradigm shifts Theoretical influences on social research methods Social science and grounded theory Positivism Phenomenology Choice of methods Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 6:The principles of research Introduction Searching the literature Literature reviews Systematic reviews and meta-analyses Rigour Aims, objectives and hypotheses Concepts and theories Research proposals Research design and research methods Selection of measurement instruments Secondary data analysis Level of data and statistical techniques Reliability and validity Threats to reliability and validity Mixed mode questionnaires and biases Ethics and ethical committees, clinical governance Dissemination Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Section III - Quantitative research: sampling and research methods Chapter 7:Sample size and sampling for quantitative research Introduction 1Calculation of sample size, statistical significance and sampling The sampling unit Calculation of sample size and statistical power Testing hypotheses, statistical significance, the null hypothesis Type I and Type II errors One - or two-sided hypothesis testing Statistical, social and clinical significance Sampling frames Sampling Confidence intervals and the normal distribution External validity of the sample results 2Methods of sampling Random sampling Non-random sampling: quota sampling Sampling for qualitative research Sampling for telephone interviews Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Notes Recommended reading Chapter 8:Quantitative research: surveys Introduction 1Survey methods The survey Descriptive and analytic surveys Retrospective (ex post facto), cross-sectional surveys Prospective, longitudinal surveys Cross-sectional and longitudinal cohort studies Triangulated research methods and surveys 2Methods of analysing change in longitudinal surveys Analysing change Sample attrition and analysing change Stopping rules and analysis of interim results Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 9:Quantitative research: experiments and other analytical methods of investigation Introduction The experimental method Internal and external validity Reducing bias in participants and the investigating team Blind experiments The randomised controlled trial in health care evaluation Other analytic methods of investigation Before-after study with non-randomised control group After-only study with non-randomised control group Time series studies using different samples (historical controls) Geographical comparisons People acting as own controls Within-person, controlled site study Threats to the validity of causal inferences in other analytic studies Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 10:Sample selection and group assignment methods in experiments and other analytic methods Introduction Random sampling Convenience and purposive sampling Volunteers Type of investigation and type of sampling frame Response rates: experiments and other analytical studies Ensuring similarity in group characteristics: random allocation Other allocation methods: cross-over methods Methods of group design for improving the basic RCT Common methods of controlling to obtain equivalence in non-randomised studies Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Section IV - The tools of quantitative research Chapter 11:Data collection methods in quantitative research: questionnaires, interviews and their response rates Introduction Structured and semi-structured questionnaires Postal questionnaires and self-administration Structured and semi-structured interviews Non-response Item non-response Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 12:Questionnaire design Introduction Planning Piloting Questionnaire layout The covering letter Questions form, order and wording Rules for form Scores Constructing additional items and scales Attitude measurement scales Rules for order and wording Rules for questions by type of topic Checking the accuracy of responses Translating an instrument and cultural equivalence Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 13:Techniques of survey interviewing Introduction Types of interview The interviewer Interviewer handbooks Sampling by interviewers Interviewer training Interviewer bias Persistence in contacting respondents Approaching respondents Motivating people to respond Third parties and distractions Beginning the interview Rules for structured interviewing Interviewing techniques The end of the interview Recording responses Debriefing Quality control Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 14:Preparation of quantitative data for coding and analysis Introduction Coding Coding transfer sheets The code book Numerical values for codes Coding open questions Coding closed questions Checking returned questionnaires Data entry on to computer Direct data-entry Cleaning the data Checking for bias in the analyses Missing values and data checks Computer packages for the analysis of quantitative data The analysis Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Section V - Qualitative and combined research methods, and their analysis Chapter 15:Unstructured and structured observational studies Introduction Observation Participant observation Gaining access Hardware: video - and audio tapes Est ablishing validity and reliability Observation and triangulated methods Structured observations: what to record Time sampling Recording observed (non-verbal) body language Unstructured observations Combining structured and unstructured recordings Theoretical analysis of observational data Categorisation of observational data Narratives Audi-observation: conversation sampling Recording and analysing verbal communication Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 16:Unstructured interviewing and focus groups Introduction 1Unstructured interviews Types of unstructured, in-depth interview Theoretical frameworks for conducting in-depth interviews and analysis In-depth interviewing: sample selection and size The process of the interview Techniques of in-depth interviewing Analysis and presentation of in-depth interview data Categorising qualitative data: content analysis Rules for coding Computer programs for analysing qualitative data Narrative format Mixed research methods 2Focus groups Focus group interviews Group composition Appropriate topics for focus groups Methods of analysis Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Chapter 17:Other methods using both qualitative and quantitative approaches: case studies, consensus methods, action research and document research Introduction 1Case studies The study of single or small series of cases Examples of case studies The analysis 2Consensus methods Methods of establishing and developing consensus Delphi technique Consensus development panels Nominal group process The analysis 3Action research and rapid appraisal techniques Action research Stages of action research Rapid appraisal 4Document research Documents as sources of, or for, research Types of documents Authenticity, bias, error and interpretation Types of document research Analysis of documents Diary methods Analysis of diaries Summary of main points Key questions Key terms Recommended reading Glossary References Index
About the Author :
Ann Bowling is Professor of Health Sciences, University of Southampton, UK. She specialises in quality of life measurement, research on ageing and equity of access to health services, and is author of bestselling books on research methods and measurement including Measuring Disease, 2e, Measuring Health, 3e, and A Handbook of Health Research Methods jointly with Professor Shah Ebrahim (all published by Open University Press).
