Looking in Classrooms

This classic text by distinguished scholars provides a balanced, research-based overview of the most effective teaching methods and guides teachers to select appropriate methods by intelligent observation in their classrooms. Widely considered to be the most comprehensive and authoritative source available on effective teaching, Looking in Classrooms synthesizes the knowledge base on student motivation, classroom teaching, teacher expectations, and adapting instruction for individual learners. In its thirtieth year of publication, this text represents state-of-the-art research reviews in several areas including student motivation, classroom instruction and student learning, classroom management, and adapting instruction to the needs of individual students. It addresses the core topics of classroom instruction in an accessible fashion, promoting easy transfer to classroom practice. The text also provides useful information about how to use quantitative and qualitative observational techniques for describing and improving instruction. The text is well-organized, easy to read, and focused on the real concerns of individual classroom teachers at all grade levels. The authors have a significant understanding and feel for the K-12 classroom and the issues and situations that teachers face everyday. Users consistently provide feedback that students enjoy the book, and that many of them keep it to help them when they enter the classroom. This text integrates rigorous theory and empirical research and the practical value of this knowledge for classroom practice. It has been used in undergraduate courses for teachers in training and in master-level courses for teachers, administrators, and superintendents.

Table of Contents:
PREFACE. Most chapters conclude with “Summary,” “Suggested Activities and Questions, ” “References,” and “Appendix.” 1. CLASSROOM LIFE. ACTION-SYSTEM KNOWLEDGE. CLASSROOM NARRATIVE: AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL EXAMPLE. ANALYSIS OF THE CLASS DISCUSSION. LEARNING TO ANALYZE CLASSROOMS. CLASSROOM NARRATIVE: A SECONDARY SCHOOL EXAMPLE. EFFECTIVE TEACHING. 2. INCREASING TEACHER AWARENESS THROUGH CLASSROOM OBSERVATION. CLASSROOMS ARE COMPLEX. TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR. CLASSROOM PROBLEMS CAUSED BY LACK OF TEACHER AWARENESS. DIFFERENTIAL TEACHER-STUDENT INTERACTION. COOPERATIVE GROUP LEARNING. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE. SELECTION OF CLASSROOM TASKS. HOW STUDENTS AFFECT TEACHERS. MULTIPLE VIEWS OF CLASSROOM LIFE. WHY TEACHERS ARE UNAWARE. IMPROVING TEACHING THROUGH OBSERVATIONAL FEEDBACK. BENEFITS OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION. PROBLEMS WITH OBSERVATION. DANGERS OF INTERPRETATION. CASE STUDY TECHNIQUES. SIMPLIFYING THE OBSERVATIONAL TASK. RELIABILITY OF OBSERVATIONS. GENERAL PLAN FOR OBSERVING IN CLASSROOMS. USING RESEARCH AND OBSERVATIONAL FEEDBACK. TEACHERS AS DECISION MAKERS. 3. TEACHER EXPECTATIONS. AN EXAMPLE. TYPES OF EXPECTATION EFFECTS. TEACHERS' EXPECTATIONS AS SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES. EFFECTS OF INDUCED EXPECTATIONS. STUDIES OF NATURALLY FORMED EXPECTATIONS. HOW EXPECTATIONS BECOME SELF-FULFILLING. BROPHY AND GOOD'S MODEL. PRACTICE EXAMPLES. ANALYSIS OF EXAMPLES. HOW TEACHERS FORM EXPECTATIONS. HOW TEACHERS COMMUNICATE EXPECTATIONS TO STUDENTS. STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL TEACHER TREATMENT. STUDENTS' RESPONSES TO DIFFERENTIAL LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES. FACTORS THAT AFFECT EXPECTATION COMMUNICAITON. GROUP, CLASS, AND SCHOOL EXPECTATION EFFECTS. EFFECTS OF EXPECTATIONS ON STUDENTS' PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. OTHER DIRECTIONS FOR EXPECTATION RESEARCH. INCREASING EXPECTATIONS. AVOIDING NEGATIVE EXPECTATION EFFECTS. 4. MANAGEMENT I: PREVENTING PROBLEMS. CLASSROOM VIGNETTES. MANAGEMENT RESEARCH. STUDENT ROLE. CLASSROOM EXAMPLES. MANAGEMENT AS MOTIVATION AND PROBLEM PREVENTION. ESSENTIAL TEACHER ATTITUDES. THE TEACHER AS A MODEL. GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES. MANAGEMENT OF SMALL-GROUP LEARNING. GETTING THE SCHOOL YEAR OFF TO A GOOD START. MAINTAINING AN EFFECTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT. GETTING AND HOLDING ATTENTION. INDEPENDENT WORK. SELF-REGULATED MANAGEMENT. EXPANDED CONCEPTIONS OF TEACHING AND MANAGEMENT. 5. MANAGEMENT II: COPING WITH PROBLEMS EFFECTIVELY. CLASSROOM VIGNETTES. WHAT MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS DO TEACHERS FACE? DEALING WITH MINOR INATTENTION AND MISBEHAVIOR. DEALING WITH PROLONGED OR DISRUPTIVE MISBEHAVIOR. CONFILICT RESOLUTION. SCHOOL-LEVEL SUPPRT. HELPING STUDENTS DEAL WITH CONFLICT. PUNISHMENT. CHOOSING YOUR ROLE. THE TEACHER AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT. COPING WITH SERIOUS ADJUSMENT PROBLEMS. ANALYZING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR. OTHER APPROACHES TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT. BEARING THE UNBEARABLE. MODERN MANAGEMENT: AN EMERGING VIEW. 6. MOTIVATION. CLASSROOM VIGNETTES. SKILL IN MOTIVATING STUDENTS. CONTEXTUAL VIEWS OF MOTIVATION. BASIC MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS. MOTIVATION AS EXPECTANCY VALUE. ESSENTIAL PRECONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL USE OF MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES. MOTIVATING BY MAINTAINING SUCCESS EXPECTATIONS. INDUCING STUDENTS TO VALUE ACADEMIC ACTIVITIES. STRATEGIES FOR SUPPLYING EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION. STRATEGIES FOR CAPITALIZING ON STUDENTS' INTRINSIC MOTIVATION. STRATEGIES FOR STIMULATING STUDENT MOTIVATION TO LEARN. BUILDING MOTIVATION INTO THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT: GOAL THEORY AND THE TARGET PROGRAM. BUILDING MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES INTO INSTRUCTIONAL PLANS. CHAPTER = 7. STUDENTS' INTERACTIONS WITH ONE ANOTHER. EDUCATIONAL EXCELLENCE AND EQUITY. BETWEEN-CLASS GROUPING (TRACKING). WITHIN-CLASS ABILITY GROUPING. COOPERATIVE LEARNING. RESEARCH ON COOPERATIVE LEARNING METHODS. LIMITATIONS OF FINDINGS ON SMALL-GROUP LEARNING. POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COOPERATIVE GROUPS. CONCLUSTIONS FROM CONCLUSIONS FROM RESEARCH ON COOPERATIVE LEARNING. IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES: COOPERATIVE LEARNING. PROVIDING OPPORTUNITY FOR SELF-EVALUATION. ARRANGING TUTORIAL ASSISTANCE FOR STUDENTS. LEARNING IN DYADS. IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES: PEER TUTORING. 8. TEACHING HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES AND DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION. THE SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION IS BECOMING MORE DIVERSE. DEALING WITH DIVERSITY. A HETEROGENEOUS CLASSROOM. MASTERY LEARNING. INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION. COMPUTERIZED INSTRUCTION. SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTION FOR AT-RISK STUDENTS. RESEARCH ON DIFFERENTIAL INSTRUCTION. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION INDEPENDENT WORK AND LEARNING CENTERS. CURRICULUM AND STUDENT DIVERSITY. 9. ACTIVE TEACHING. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AS MEANS TO ACCOMPLISH CURRICULAR GOALS. RESEARCH RELATING TEACHER BEHAVIOR TO STUDENT LEARNING. PRESENTING INFORMATION TO STUDENTS. ENTHUSIASM. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS. STRUCTURING ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS. 10. HELPING STUDENTS TO CONSTRUCT USABLE KNOWLEDGE. TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING, APPRECIATION, AND APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE. BASIC CONSTRUCTIVIST PRINCIPLES. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING. SOCIOCULTURAL VIEWS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING. RESEARCH ON TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING. SUBJECT-SPECIFIC EXAMPLES. USING RESEARCH TO INFORM YOUR TEACHING. PLANNING YOUR TEACHING: FACE UP TO THE COMPLEXITIES. ADAPT TEACHING TO THE SITUATION. 11. IMPROVING CLASSROOM TEACHING. CLASSROOM VIGNETTES. OBSTACLES TO TEACHER SELF-IMPROVEMENT. EXPERIMENTING AND IMPROVING. IMPROVING WORKPLACE CONDITIONS FOR TEACHING. SCHOOLS AS SOCIAL SYSTEMS. THE GROWING IMPORTANCE OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT. IN-SERVICE ON SCHOOL-LEVEL CONCERNS. TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT. TEACHER EVALUATION. DO LOOK BACK. AUTHOR INDEX. SUBJECT INDEX.