Literacy Difficulties: Diagnosis and Instruction for Reading Specialists and Classroom Teachers

Literacy Difficulties is the only text designed for remedial reading methods classes in which reading, writing, speaking, and listening difficulties are described, remediated, and evaluated for classroom and clinical situations. The purpose of this text is to serve as a primary textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses concerning remedial reading instruction. It is designed to prepare teachers to meet the reading and writing needs of students whose progress is not moving as rapidly as their peers'. Class-tested for two years in courses at the University of Georgia, Monmouth University, and the University of Notre Dame, Literacy Difficulties has proven itself an invaluable text for both students and professors. Every chapter offers new types of lesson plans and assessment tools for classroom and clinical settings containing pupils with a wide range of reading ability levels.

Table of Contents:
Each chapter begins with “Chapter Overview” and concludes with “Chapter Summary,” “Thinking and Writing About What You Have Learned,” and “Achievement.”I. FOUNDATIONS. 1. Teaching to Remove the Remedial Reader Label. Who Are Students with Special Literacy Needs? Levels of Literacy Ability. Approaches Based on Literacy Needs. Successful Teacher Actions. Remove Physical and Psychological Distance. Use Conversations to Develop Student Strengths. Adapt Curriculum to Student Needs. Model Literacy Processes. Become a Master Scaffolder. Reflect Questions Back to the Class. Create a Generative Curriculum. Desirable Teacher Beliefs. 2. History and Theories of Literacy Instruction. The History of Literacy Instruction. From the Middle Ages to the 17th Century. Early American Colonial Period. From 1800 to 1840. The 19th and Early 20th Centuries. From 1940 to 1970. Reading Instruction Today. You and the Future. Pulling Historical and Theoretical Threads Together. The Bottom-Up and Additive Model. The Interactive Model. The Constructivist Model. The Social Constructivist or Learning Community Model. The Transactional Model. Which Model to Use?. II. CONDITIONS THAT CAN IMPEDE LITERACY DEVELOPMENT. 3. Physical and Cognitive Conditions that Create Differences in Literacy. Physical Conditions that Limit Literacy. Neurological Differences. Vision Differences. Auditory Differences. Kinesthetic-Tactile Differences. Cognitive Conditions that Limit Literacy. Gender Differences. Schema Differences. Cognitive Style Differences. 4. Affective and Motivation Conditions that Create Differences in Literacy Increasing Commitment to Literacy. Psychological and Motivation Attributes. Moving to Total Literacy Engagement. Levels of Emotional Investment. Increasing Interest in Literacy. Separating True Literacy Differences from Defense Mechanisms and Learned Helplessness. Instructional Interventions. Discovery Discussions. Attitude and Interest Assessments. Teaching Students How to Set Their Own Standards. Students Self-Responsibility Guides. 5. Embracing Readers' Social and Cultural Richness. History of American Growth. Cultural and Social Influences on Literacy Achievement. Instructional Approaches to Cultural Diversity. Interaction Patterns Influenced by Cultural and Social Variables. Language Differences. African American Culture. Hispanic Cultural Groups. Native Americans. Asian Americans. Students from Urban Cultures. Students from Rural Cultures. Teacher Adaptations to Culturally Diverse Interaction Patterns. Instruction that Maximizes the Cultural and Social Strengths of Level 2 and 3 Readers. Before School Begins. Opening School Activities. “I” Books and Slit Books. Family Story Projects. Autobiographies and Biographies. Student of the Week. III. INSTRUCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS IN READING. 6. Assessment to Inform Instruction. Principles of Effective Assessment. New Principles for Assessment. Formal Diagnosis, Instruction, and Assessment of Students at Levels 1, 2, and 3, of Literacy Development. Category 1: Multiple Subject Achievement Tests. Category 2: Standardized Reading Survey Tests. Category 3: Specialized Standardized Tests. How to Interpret Test Scores for Students and Parents. Informal Diagnosis, Instruction, and Assessment of Students at Levels 1, 2, and 3 of Literacy Development. Collecting Observational Data. Informal Reading and Writing Inventories. Reading Miscue Inventories and Running Records. Retellings. Portfolios. Self-Assessments. Grading Readers/Writers with Literacy Challenges. 7. Creating Optimal Learning Conditions. Principles of Classroom Organization. Designing a Quality Curriculum. Step 1: Attract Students Through Choices and Open Tasks. Step 2: Help Students Set Goals and Standards. Step 3: Plan a Special Support. Step 4: Provide Time to Read. Step 5: Assess Activities. Step 6: Ask Questions About What Worked Best. Effective Instructional Groups. Reading Response Groups. Cooperative Groups. Expert Groups. Desktop Learning Centers. Paired Groupings. Solving Classroom Problems. 8. Enhancing Emergent Literacy. Emergent Literacy Concepts. Reading Readiness Versus Emergent Literacy. Emergent Writing. Discovering that Print Has Meaning. Literacy at Home and School. Taking Literacy Home. Bringing Home to School. In-Class Activities and Programs. Reading Classmates' Names. Alphabet Strips and Word Strips. Assessment. Intergenerational Programs. Transitional Programs. 9. Enhancing Decoding Abilities. Why Some Readers Need Special Decoding Strategies. Decoding Success and Attitude Toward Reading. Sight Word Strategies. Teaching Content-Specific Sight Words. Teaching Basic Sight Words. Teaching Signal Sight Words. Semantic and Syntactic Context Clues. Teaching Semantic Context Clues. Structural Analysis. Phonics. Instructional Principles for Teaching Phonics. Using Dictionaries and Thesauruses. Pulling It All Together. 10. Enhancing Comprehension. Overcoming Comprehension Barriers. Tilling the Text. Attending to Authors' Writing Styles. Establishing a Purpose. Overcoming Word-Calling. Using Prior Knowledge to Expand Meaning-Making. Expanding Content Vocabulary. Making Meaning While Reading. Story Grammar in Narrative Texts. Authorial Patterns in Expository Texts. Paragraph Functions. Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA). Question-Answer Relationships (QAR). Reflecting After Reading. Increasing Metacognition. Using Comprehension Strategies Interactively. Assessing Comprehension. IV. INSTRUCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS IN LANGUAGE ARTS. 11. Assisting Reluctant Writers. Classroom Support for Writers at Levels. Developing Their Voice. Identifying Unique Communication Strengths. Accepting Different Viewpoints. Providing Explanations. Assistance During the Prewriting Stage. Special Supports for First-Draft Writing. Dictating. Writing a “Choose Your Own Adventure” Book. Using Dialogue Journals. Storytelling. Creating Personalized Bookmarks. Writing for Authentic Reasons. Practicing Tricks of the Trade. Supports During the Revision Process. Self-Questioning. Making Connections and Transitions. Giving Feedback. Encouraging Creativity. The Carlson Analytical Originality Scale. Assessing Reluctant Writers. 12. Assisting Students Who Face Spelling, Grammar, and Handwriting Challenges. Spelling Development. Types of Spelling Difficulties. Instructional Supports for Specific Spelling Problems. General Supports for Spelling Difficulties. Teaching Grammar. Instruction of Grammatical Principles. Improving Handwriting. Manuscript Writing. Cursive Handwriting. 13. Assisting Students Who Face Oral Language Challenges. Problems in Attaining Oral Proficiency. Developmentally Related Speaking Difficulties. Communication Apprehension. Using Drama to Increase Speaking Abilities. Pathologically Related Speaking Difficulties. Second Language Speaking Difficulties. Diagnosing Needs. Addressing Needs. Dialectically Different Language Learners. Instructional Activities for Second Language or Dialectically Different Students. Increasing Oral Reading Fluency. Assessing Oral Language Growth. V. SPECIALIZED ADAPTIONS. 14. Support for Special Problems. Diagnosing Special Literacy Needs. Recognizing Special Problems. Learning Disabilities. Auditory Functions. Learning Style Differences. Using Multiple Intelligence Theory to Overcome Literacy Barriers. Logical-Mathematical Intelligences. Spatial Intelligence. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence. Musical Intelligence. Interpersonal Intelligence. Intrapersonal Intelligence. Overcoming Emotional and Attentional Barriers. Overcoming Literacy Barriers Due to Mental Dysfunction. Addressing Dyslexia. Effective Early Intervention Programs. Success for All. The Winston-Salem Project. Early Intervention in Reading. The Boulder Project. Reading Recovery. Common Characteristics of Effective Early Intervention Programs. Special Tutorial Programs. The Slingerland Program, Spalding Method, and Writing Skills for the Adolescent. Alphabet Phonics. The Stevenson Language Skills Method. Answer Key. References. Literary Acknowledgements. Name Index. Subject Index. Resource Appendix.