The Philosopher's Way: Thinking Critically About Profound Ideas: International Edition

The Philosopher's Way:Thinking Critically About Profound Ideas, 3/e,  inspires students to think like a philosopher. Integrated readings, interspersed with commentary, guide students in their understanding of the topics, while critical thinking activities challenge students to go beyond their reading and explore the connections philosophy has on their everyday lives. Full-color visuals bring topics to life, and writing examples give students a foundation for their own philosophical exploration.

Table of Contents:
Bold sections are new to this edition:   1 what is philosophy? THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY ABOUT LIFE  3 1.1 Why Study Philosophy?  4 1.2 Defining Philosophy  6      Philosophy Is the Pursuit of Wisdom  6      Philosophy Begins with Wonder  8      Philosophy Is a Dynamic Process  8      The Ultimate Aim of Philosophy  9 1.3 Thinking Philosophically: Becoming a Critical Thinker  9      Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Philosophy of Life?  11     Qualities of a Critical Thinker  12      Thinking Philosophically Who Are Your Models of Critical Thinking?  12      The Process of Critical Thinking  13      Thinking Philosophically Applying the Critical Thinking Model  16 1.4 Understanding Arguments  16      The Structure of Arguments  17      Evaluating Arguments  18      Deductive Arguments  20      Inductive Arguments  21      Informal Fallacies  22      Thinking Philosophically Evaluating Arguments  24 1.5 Branches of Philosophy  24      Metaphysics  26      Thinking Philosophically Are You Willing to Question Your Beliefs?  27      Thinking Philosophically How Do You Know What Is True?  28      Epistemology  28      Ethics  28      Thinking Philosophically Do You Have a Moral Philosophy?  29      Political and Social Philosophy  30      Aesthetics  31 1.6 Reading Critically: Working with Primary Sources  31      Bertrand Russell, from The Value of Philosophy  32      Reading Critically Analyzing Russell on the Value of Philosophy  34 1.7 Making Connections: The Search for a Meaningful Life  34      Thinking Philosophically What Do You Hope to Learn?  37      Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Your Beliefs  37      visual summary  38      chapter review  38      for further reading, viewing & research  38 2 what is the philosopher’s way? SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE  41 2.1 Socrates: A Model for Humanity  42      A Man of Greece  42      A Midwife of Ideas  45      The Wisest of Men?  46      Plato, from The Apology  47      Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on Wisdom and Humility  48 2.2 The Socratic Method  48      Plato, from The Republic  50      Reading Critically Analyzing a Socratic Dialogue  54 2.3 Socrates’ Central Concern: The Soul  55      Plato, from The Apology  55      Reading Critically Analyzing the Core Teachings of Socrates  59 2.4 The Trial and Death of Socrates  59      Plato, from The Apology  60      Thinking Philosophically Countering Personal Attacks  62      Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on Trial  70 2.5 Making Connections: Socrates’ Legacy  78      Thinking Philosophically Is Socrates Relevant Today?  79      Writing About Philosophy A Socratic Dialogue  80      visual summary  84      chapter review  84      for further reading, viewing & research  84 3 who are you? CONSCIOUSNESS, IDENTITY, AND THE SELF  87 3.1 Know Thyself?  88      Thinking Philosophically Do You Know Yourself?  89 3.2 The Soul Is Immortal: Socrates and Plato  89      Plato, from Phaedo  90      Reading Critically Analyzing Socrates on the Self  92      Plato, from Phaedrus, The Chariot Analogy  94      Reading Critically Analyzing the Chariot Analogy  95      A Feminist Critique of Plato’s View of the Self  95      Elizabeth V. Spelman, from Woman as Body  96      Reading Critically Analyzing Spelman’s Critique of Plato  97 3.3 Descartes’ Modern Perspective on the Self  97      René Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy  99      Thinking Philosophically Are You a Seeker After Truth?  101      Reading Critically Analyzing Descartes on the Mind/Body Problem  105 3.4 The Self Is Consciousness: Locke  105      John Locke, from On Personal Identity  106      Thinking Philosophically Applying Locke’s Ideas  107      Reading Critically Analyzing Locke on the Conscious Self  110 3.5 There Is No Self: Hume  110      David Hume, from On Personal Identity  110      Reading Critically Analyzing Hume on the Absence of Self  113 3.6 We Construct the Self: Kant  113      Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics  114      Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason  116      Thinking Philosophically Sense, Perception, and Your Self  116      Reading Critically Analyzing Kant’s Unity of Consciousness  119 3.7 The Self Is Embodied Subjectivity: Husserl and Merleau-Ponty  119      Marcel Proust, from In Search of Time Lost  122      Thinking Philosophically Applying Phenomenology  122      Marcel Proust, from Within a Budding Grove  122 3.8 The Self Is the Brain: Materialism  123      Churchland, from On Eliminative Materialism  124      Reading Critically Analyzing Churchland’s Materialism  128 3.9 Buddhist Concepts of the Self  128      Milindapanha, The Simile of the Chariot  129      Reading Critically Analyzing the Buddhist Chariot Analogy  130 3.10 Making Connections: In Search of the Self  130      Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Concept of the Self?  131      Writing About Philosophy Defining the Self  132      visual summary  136      chapter review  136      for further reading, viewing & research  136 4 are you free? FREEDOM AND DETERMINISM  139 4.1 Are You the Master of Your Fate?  140      Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Assumptions About Freedom?  143 4.2 Determinism  144      Baron d’Holbach, from The System of Nature  146      Thinking Philosophically Do You Choose Freely?  152      Reading Critically Analyzing Baron d’Holbach on the Illusion of Freedom  153 4.3 Compatibilism  153      External Constraints May Limit Freedom: Stace  153      W. T. Stace, from Religion and the Modern Mind  154      Internal Constraints May Also Limit Freedom: Schlick  159      Free Will Is a Human Creation: Dennett  160      Reading Critically Evaluating Compatibilism  161 4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism  161      We Live in a World of Possibilities: James  162      William James, from The Will to Believe  163      Reading Critically Analyzing James on Free Will  171      We Create Ourselves Through Our Choices: Sartre  172      Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism  172      Reading Critically Analyzing Sartre on Freedom, Choice, and Responsibility  182 4.5 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom  182      Jean Grimshaw, from Autonomy and Identity in Feminist Thinking  182      Reading Critically Analyzing Jean Grimshaw on Autonomy  186 4.6 Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis  186      Overcoming Limitations to Your Freedom  187      Confronting External Constraints  189      Confronting Internal Constraints  189      Thinking Philosophically What Are the Limitations to Your Freedom?  191      Writing About Philosophy Understanding Personal Freedom  191      visual summary  192      chapter review  192      for further reading, viewing & research  192 5 how can we know the nature of reality? PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS  195 5.1 What Is the Nature of Reality?  196      Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Concept of Reality?  198 5.2 Reality Is the Eternal Realm of the Forms: Plato  199      The Divided Line  201      The Theory of Innate Ideas  202      Plato, from Meno  203      Reading Critically Analyzing Plato’s Theory of Innate Ideas  205      The Path to Knowledge of Reality: The Cave Allegory  205      Plato, from The Republic  205      Reading Critically Analyzing Plato’s Allegory of the Cave  209 5.3 Reality Is the Natural World: Aristotle  209      Aristotle’s Two Categories: Matter and Form  210      Entelechy  211      The Four Causes  212      Aristotle, from Metaphysics  212      Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle’s Concept of Reality  214 5.4 Can Reality Be Known? Descartes  215      René Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy  216      Reading Critically Analyzing Descartes’ Radical Doubt  227 5.5 Making Connections: Your Beliefs About the World  227      Thinking Philosophically Evaluating the Accuracy of Your Beliefs  230      Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Philosophical Themes in a Fictional Work  231      visual summary  236      chapter review  236      for further reading, viewing & research  236 6 what is real? what is true? FURTHER EXPLORATIONS  239 6.1 Questioning Independent Reality  240      Bertrand Russell, from Appearance and Reality  241      Reading Critically How Do You Know What Is “Real”?  245 6.2 All Knowledge Comes from Experience: Locke  245      Locke’s Critique of “Universality”  246      John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding  246      Leibniz’s Case Against Locke  248      Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from New Essays Concerning Human Understanding  248      Locke’s Causal Theory of Perception  250      John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding  251      Reading Critically Analyzing Locke’s Empirical View  257 6.3 Reality Depends on Perception: Berkeley  258      George Berkeley, from A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge  258      Reading Critically Analyzing Berkeley’s Subjective Idealism  263 6.4 Understanding Reality Demands Skepticism: Hume  263      David Hume, from An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding  265      Reading Critically Analyzing Hume’s Case for Skepticism  273 6.5 We Constitute Our World: Kant  273      Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics  274      Hume’s Challenge to Philosophy  275      Kant’s Solution: Transcendental Idealism  278      Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason  283      Two Realities: Phenomenal and Noumenal  289      Reading Critically Analyzing Kant’s Synthesizing Project  291      Applying Kant’s Theory  291      Three Accounts of the Assassination of Malcolm X  292      Reading Critically How Is Knowledge Constructed?  294 6.6 Emotions Shape Our Understanding: Jaggar  294      Alison M. Jaggar, from Love and Knowledge: Emotion in Epistemology  295      Reading Critically Analyzing Jaggar on the Role of Emotions  302 6.7 Making Connections: Developing Informed Beliefs  303      Thinking Philosophically What Are the Limits of Your Knowledge?  305      Writing About Philosophy Constructing Knowledge  305      visual summary  306      chapter review  306      for further reading, viewing & research  306 7 is there a spiritual reality? EXPLORING THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION  309 7.1 Thinking Philosophically About Religious Beliefs  310      Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Religious Beliefs?  311 7.2 What Is Religion?  313      Ways of Defining Religion  313      Frederick Streng, from What Is Religion?  314      Reading Critically Analyzing Streng on Definitions of Religion  317      God Is a Human Projection: Feuerbach  318      Ludwig Feuerbach, from The Essence of Christianity  318      Reading Critically Analyzing Feuerbach on Religion as Anthropomorphism  320      Religion Is Vital Quest: Nishitani  321      Keiji Nishitani, from Religion and Nothingness  321      Reading Critically Analyzing Nishitani on the Religious Quest  324 7.3 A Brief Survey of World Religions  325      Hinduism  325      Buddhism  327      Daoism (Taoism)  328      Judaism  329      Christianity  330      Islam  331      Indigenous Sacred Ways  332      Thinking Philosophically Expanding Your Religious Understanding  334 7.4 Can We Prove the Existence of God?  334      The Ontological Argument  335      Saint Anselm and Gaunilo, from The Ontological Argument  335      Reading Critically Analyzing the Ontological Argument  338      The Cosmological Argument  338      Saint Thomas Aquinas, from Summa Theologica  339      Reading Critically Analyzing the Cosmological Argument  341      The Argument from Gradations of Perfection  341      The Argument from Design  341      William Paley, from Natural Theology  342      Reading Critically Analyzing the Argument from Design  342      The Argument from Morality  343      Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Practical Reason  344      Reading Critically Analyzing the Argument from Morality  345 7.5 The Problem of Evil  346      John Hick, from Philosophy of Religion  347      Reading Critically Analyzing Hick on the Problem of Evil  350 7.6 Faith and Religious Experience  351      Religious Faith as a Wager: Pascal  352      Blaise Pascal, “A Wager” from Thoughts on Religion  352      Reading Critically Analyzing “Pascal’s Wager”  354      Religious Beliefs Require Sufficient Evidence: Clifford  355      W. K. Clifford, from The Ethics of Belief  355      Reading Critically Analyzing Clifford on the Ethics of Belief  359      Religious Belief Is Legitimate and Compelling: James  359      William James, from The Will to Believe  361      Reading Critically Analyzing James on the Will to Believe  368      Subjective Knowing: The Leap of Faith  368      Søren Kierkegaard, from The Leap of Faith and the Limits of Reason  369      Søren Kierkegaard, from Concluding Unscientific Postscript  370      Reading Critically Analyzing Kierkegaard on Faith and Reason  371 7.7 Making Connections: Reflections on the Philosophy of Religion  372      visual summary  374      chapter review  374      for further reading, viewing & research  374 8 are there moral truths? THINKING ABOUT ETHICS  377 8.1 Your Moral Compass  378      Ethics and Values  379      Thinking Philosophically What Are Your Moral Values?  381      Thinking Philosophically About Ethics  381      Thinking Philosophically Making Moral Decisions  383 8.2 Ethical Relativism  385      Ethical Subjectivism: Each Person Determines What Is Morally Right  385      Thinking Philosophically How Subjective Are Your Ethics?  389      Cultural Relativism: Each Culture Determines What Is Morally Right  390      Ruth Benedict, from Anthropology and the Abnormal  391      Thinking Philosophically Cultural Relativism and Your Moral Perspective  393      Reading Critically Analyzing Benedict on Culture and Values  394 8.3 Ethical Absolutism: Some Moral Values Are Universal  395      Thinking Philosophically Do You Believe in Universal Values?  395      W. T. Stace, from The Concept of Morals  396      Reading Critically Analyzing Stace’s Critique of Ethical Relativism  400 8.4 Egoism as a Universal Principle  400      Arguments for Egoism  401      Plato, from The Republic, “The Myth of Gyges”  401      Reading Critically Analyzing “The Myth of Gyges”  403      Ayn Rand, from The Virtue of Selfishness  404      Reading Critically Analyzing Rand on the Virtue of Selfishness  406      Arguments Against Egoism  407      James Rachels, from Egoism and Moral Skepticism  407      Reading Critically Analyzing Rachels’s Critique of Egoism  412 8.5 Religion and Universal Values  412      Divine Command Theory  412      Thinking Philosophically Religion and Your Ethical Values  413      The Story of Abraham and Isaac, from the Bible  414      Natural Law Theory  415      Thinking Philosophically Do You Believe in Natural Laws?  417      Martin Luther King Jr., from Letter from a Birmingham Jail  418      Reading Critically Analyzing King on Universal Values  419 8.6 Making Connections: On Becoming an Ethical Person  420      Robert Coles, from The Disparity Between Intellect and Character  420      Thinking Philosophically Can Morality Be Learned in College?  422      Writing About Philosophy Moral Issues in Multiculturalism  423      visual summary  424      chapter review  424      for further reading, viewing & research  424 9 what are right actions? CONSTRUCTING AN ETHICAL THEORY  427 9.1 Expanding Your Knowledge of Moral Philosophy  428 9.2 Character: Virtue Ethics  428      Thinking Philosophically What Is Your Moral Character?  429      Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics  429      Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics  438 9.3 Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws  439      Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals  441      Thinking Philosophically The Categorical Imperative and Your Moral Compass  446      Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals  447      Reading Critically Analyzing Kant on Duty and Reason  452 9.4 Consequences: Utilitarianism  452      The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number: Bentham 453      Jeremy Bentham, from An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation  454      Thinking Philosophically Applying the Hedonistic Calculus  459      Higher Pleasures Have Greater Worth: Mill  460      John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism  462      Reading Critically Analyzing Utilitarianism  464      Consider the Interests of Animals: Singer  464      Peter Singer, from Animal Liberation  465      Reading Critically Analyzing Singer on Animal Rights  468 9.5 Authenticity: Existentialist Ethics  469      “The Crowd Is Untruth”: Kierkegaard  470      Søren Kierkegaard, from On the Dedication to `That Single Individual’  471      Søren Kierkegaard, from The Present Age  474      Reading Critically Analyzing Kierkegaard on Authenticity  476      Beyond Good and Evil: Nietzsche  476      Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Gay Science  478      Friedrich Nietzsche, from Beyond Good and Evil  479      Reading Critically Analyzing Nietzsche on Morality  480      Authenticity and Ethical Responsibility: Sartre  481      Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism  481      Reading Critically Analyzing Sartre on Moral Responsibility  486      Our Interplay with Others Defines Us: de Beauvoir  486      Simone de Beauvoir, from Ethics of Ambiguity  486      Reading Critically Analyzing de Beauvoir on Moral Choices  488      Courage Is the Highest Value: Camus  489      Camus, from The Myth of Sisyphus  489      Reading Critically Analyzing the Myth of Sisyphus  491 9.6 Empathy: The Ethics of Care  491      Nel Noddings, from Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education  492      Reading Critically Analyzing Noddings on the Ethics of Care  495 9.7 Making Connections: Your Moral Compass Revisited  495      Thinking Philosophically Constructing an Ethical Theory  496      Writing About Philosophy Analyzing Moral Choices in a Film or Novel  497      visual summary  498      chapter review  498      for further reading, viewing & research  498 10 what is social justice? CREATING A JUST STATE  501 10.1 Elements of a Just Society  502      Thinking Philosophically Examining Our Society  504 10.2 Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle  504      Society Should Be Based on Virtue: Confucius  504      Reading Critically Analyzing Confucius on the Social Order  507      Society Should Be Based on Function and Harmony: Plato  507      Plato, from The Republic  508      Reading Critically Analyzing Plato on Social Harmony  511      Society Is the Natural State of Humanity: Aristotle  511      Aristotle, from Politics  511      Reading Critically Analyzing Aristotle on Community  514 10.3 Justice Depends on a Social Contract: From Hobbes and Locke to Rawls  514      We Need a Social Contract to Coexist: Hobbes  515      Thomas Hobbes, from Leviathan  516      Reading Critically Analyzing Hobbes on the Social Contract  520      The Social Contract Protects Natural Rights: Locke  520      John Locke, from The Second Treatise of Civil Government  521      Thomas Jefferson et al., from The Declaration of Independence: A Transcription  526      Reading Critically Analyzing Locke on Natural Rights  527      The State of Nature: Assumptions and Questions  527      The State of Nature Is a Conceptual Tool: Rawls  529      John Rawls, from A Theory of Justice  530      Thinking Philosophically Creating a Just Society  531      Reading Critically Analyzing Rawls on Justice and Equality  533 10.4 Justice Is Based on Need and Ability: Marx and Engels  533      Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, from Manifesto of the Communist Party  535      Reading Critically Analyzing Marx and Engels on Social Justice  543 10.5 Justice Is What Promotes the General Welfare: Mill  543      Thinking Philosophically Analyzing Mill’s Concept of Justice  545      John Stuart Mill, from On Liberty  546      Reading Critically Analyzing Mill on Liberty  551 10.6 Justice Is What Promotes Gender Equality: Okin  551      Susan Moller Okin, from Justice, Gender, and the Family  552      Reading Critically Analyzing Okin on Gender Equality  559 10.7 Making Connections: An Ideal Society  560      Thinking Philosophically Your Ideal Society  560      Writing About Philosophy Your Ideal Society  561      visual summary  568      chapter review  568      for further reading, viewing & research  568      Credits  571      Index  585  

About the Author :
John Chaffee, Ph.D., is a Professor of Philosophy at The City University of New York where he has developed a program in Philosophy and Critical Thinking which involves 25 faculty and 3,000 students annually. He is a nationally recognized figure in the area of critical thinking, having authored several leading books, many professional articles and conducted numerous conference presentations and workshops throughout the country. In developing programs to teach people to think more effectively in all academic subjects and areas of life, he has received grants from The National Endowment for the Humanities, The Ford Foundation, the Annenberg Foundation, and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. He was selected as New York Educator of the Year (1992) and received the Distinguished Faculty Award for Diversity in Teaching in Higher Education (1998).