Fabrication Engineer

In the education area, Professor Campbell leads the University of Minnesota's participation in Nano-Link, an NSF sponsored regional center for nanotechnology education at the AAS level. He has designed and implemented a one-semester capstone experience Microelectronic Fabrication and created the text book as a result. Designed for advanced undergraduate or first-year graduate courses in semiconductor or microelectronic fabrication, this fourth edition of Fabrication Engineering at the Micro- and Nanoscale provides a thorough and accessible introduction to all fields of micro and nano fabrication. The text covers the entire basic unit processes used to fabricate integrated circuits and other devices.

Table of Contents:
Preface xiii Part I Overview and Materials 1 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication 3 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example 5 1.2 Unit Processes and Technologies 7 1.3 A Roadmap for the Course 8 1.4 Summary 9 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates 10 2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility° 10 2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure° 14 2.3 Crystal Defects 16 2.4 Czochralski Growth 22 2.5 Bridgman Growth of GaAs 30 2.6 Float Zone Growth 32 2.7 Wafer Preparation and Specifications 33 2.8 Summary and Future Trends 35 Problems 35 References 36 Part II Unit Processes I: Hot Processing and Ion Implantation 41 Chapter 3 Diffusion 43 3.1 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension 43 3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion 45 3.3 Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law 50 3.4 Diffusion Coefficients for Common Dopants 53 3.5 Analysis of Diffused Profiles 56 3.6 Diffusion in SiO2 62 3.7 Simulations of Diffusion Profiles 64 3.8 Summary 69 Problems 69 References 71 Chapter 4 Thermal Oxidation 74 4.1 The Deal-Grove Model of Oxidation 74 4.2 The Linear and Parabolic Rate Coefficients 77 4.3 The Initial Oxidation Regime 81 4.4 The Structure of SiO2 83 4.5 Oxide Characterization 84 4.6 The Effects of Dopants During Oxidation and Polysilicon Oxidation 91 4.7 Silicon Oxynitrides 94 4.8 Alternative Gate Insulators+ 95 4.9 Oxidation Systems 97 4.10 Numeric Oxidations+ 99 4.11 Summary 101 Problems 101 References 103 Chapter 5 Ion Implantation 107 5.1 Idealized Ion Implantation Systems 108 5.2 Coulomb Scattering° 113 5.3 Vertical Projected Range 114 5.4 Channeling and Lateral Projected Range 120 5.5 Implantation Damage 122 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation+ 126 5.7 Buried Dielectrics+ 128 5.8 Ion Implantation Systems: Problems and Concerns 130 5.9 Numerical Implanted Profiles 132 5.10 Summary 134 Problems 134 References 136 Chapter 6 Rapid Thermal Processing 140 6.1 Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption° 141 6.2 High Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design 144 6.3 Temperature Measurement 147 6.4 Thermoplastic Stress° 151 6.5 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities 152 6.6 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics 154 6.7 Silicidation and Contact Formation 155 6.8 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems 156 6.9 Summary 157 Problems 157 References 158 Part III Unit Processes 2: Pattern Transfer 163 Chapter 7 Optical Lithography 165 7.1 Lithography Overview 165 7.2 Diffraction° 169 7.3 The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures 172 7.4 Source Systems and Spatial Coherence 175 7.5 Contact/Proximity Printers 179 7.6 Projection Printers 183 7.7 Advanced Mask Concepts+ 189 7.8 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves 192 7.9 Alignment 194 7.10 Summary 195 Problems 195 References 196 Chapter 8 Photoresists 199 8.1 Photoresist Types 199 8.2 Organic Materials and Polymers° 200 8.3 Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist 202 8.4 Contrast Curves 204 8.5 The Critical Modulation Transfer Function 207 8.6 Applying and Developing Photoresist 207 8.7 Second-Order Exposure Effects 211 8.8 Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes+ 215 8.9 Summary 219 Problems 219 References 221 Chapter 9 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques+ 224 9.1 Interactions of High Energy Beams with Matter° 225 9.2 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems 227 9.3 Direct-Write Electron Beam Lithography: Summary and Outlook 233 9.4 X-ray and EUV Sources° 235 9.5 Proximity X-ray Exposure Systems 238 9.6 Membrane Masks for Proximity X-ray 240 9.7 EUV Lithography 242 9.8 Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) 244 9.9 E-beam and X-ray Resists 245 9.10 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices 247 9.11 Soft Lithography and Nanoimprint Lithography 249 9.12 Summary 252 Problems 252 References 253 Chapter 10 Vacuum Science and Plasmas 259 10.1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases° 259 10.2 Gas Flow and Conductance 262 10.3 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps 265 10.4 Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement 271 10.5 The DC Glow Discharge° 273 10.6 RF Discharges 275 10.7 High Density Plasmas 277 10.8 Summary 280 Problems 280 References 282 Chapter 11 Etching 283 11.1 Wet Etching 284 11.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 289 11.3 Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching 291 11.4 High Pressure Plasma Etching 292 11.5 Ion Milling 300 11.6 Reactive Ion Etching 303 11.7 Damage in Reactive Ion Etching+ 307 11.8 High Density Plasma (HDP) Etching 308 11.9 Liftoff 310 11.10 Summary 311 Problems 312 References 313 Part IV Unit Processes 3: Thin Films 321 Chapter 12 Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering 323 12.1 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation° 324 12.2 Deposition Rates 325 12.3 Step Coverage 329 12.4 Evaporator Systems: Crucible Heating Techniques 331 12.5 Multicomponent Films 334 12.6 An Introduction to Sputtering 335 12.7 Physics of Sputtering° 336 12.8 Deposition Rate: Sputter Yield 337 12.9 High Density Plasma Sputtering 339 12.10 Morphology and Step Coverage 341 12.11 Sputtering Methods 345 12.12 Sputtering of Specific Materials 346 12.13 Stress in Deposited Layers 349 12.14 Summary 350 Problems 350 References 352 Chapter 13 Chemical Vapor Deposition 356 13.1 A Simple CVD System for the Deposition of Silicon 356 13.2 Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action° 358 13.3 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers° 361 13.4 Evaluation of the Simple CVD System 366 13.5 Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics 367 13.6 Low Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wall Systems 368 13.7 Plasma-enhanced CVD of Dielectrics 373 13.8 Metal CVD+ 377 13.9 Atomic Layer Deposition 380 13.10 Electroplating Copper 382 13.11 Summary 384 Problems 384 References 385 Chapter 14 Epitaxial Growth 391 14.1 Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal 392 14.2 The Thermodynamics of Vapor Phase Growth 396 14.3 Surface Reactions 400 14.4 Dopant Incorporation 401 14.5 Defects in Epitaxial Growth 402 14.6 Selective Growth° 405 14.7 Halide Transport GaAs Vapor Phase Epitaxy 405 14.8 Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy 406 14.9 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 409 14.10 Advanced Silicon Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques 414 14.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology 417 14.12 BCF Theory+ 422 14.13 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Epitaxy+ 427 14.14 Summary 428 Problems 428 References 429 Part V Process Integration 435 Chapter 15 Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization 437 15.1 Junction and Oxide Isolation 437 15.2 LOCOS Methods 440 15.3 Trench Isolation 443 15.4 Silicon-on-Insulator Isolation Techniques 446 15.5 Semi-insulating Substrates 447 15.6 Schottky Contacts 449 15.7 Implanted Ohmic Contacts 453 15.8 Alloyed Contacts 456 15.9 Multilevel Metallization 457 15.10 Planarization and Advanced Interconnect 462 15.11 Summary 467 Problems 468 References 469 Chapter 16 CMOS Technologies 475 16.1 Basic Long-Channel Device Behavior 475 16.2 Early MOS Technologies 477 16.3 The Basic 3-µm Technology 478 16.4 Device Scaling 483 16.5 Hot Carrier Effects and Drain Engineering 490 16.6 Latchup 493 16.7 Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping 496 16.8 The Universal Curve and Advanced CMOS 498 16.9 A Nanoscale CMOS Process 16.10 Nonplanar CMOS 16.11 Summary 500 Problems 501 References 503 Chapter 17 Other Transistor Technologies 509 17.1 Basic MESFET Operation 509 17.2 Basic MESFET Technology 510 17.3 Digital Technologies 511 17.4 MMIC Technologies 515 17.5 MODFETs 518 17.6 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasi-ideal Behavior 519 17.7 Performance of BJTs 521 17.8 Early Bipolar Processes 523 17.9 Advanced Bipolar Processes 526 17.10 BiCMOS 533 17.11 Thin Film Transistors 536 17.12 Summary 538 Problems 539 References 541 Chapter 18 Optoelectronic and Solar Technologies 547 18.1 Optoelectronic Devices Overview 547 18.2 Direct-Gap Inorganic LEDs 549 18.3 Polymer/Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 551 18.4 Lasers 553 18.5 Photovoltaic Devices Overview 18.6 Silicon Based Photovoltaic Device Fabrication 18.7 Other Photovoltaic Technologies 18.8 Summary 554 References 554 Chapter 19 MEMS 555 19.1 Fundamentals of Mechanics 556 19.2 Stress in Thin Films 558 19.3 Mechanical-to-Electrical Transduction 559 19.4 Mechanics of Common MEMS Devices 563 19.5 Bulk Micromachining Etching Techniques 567 19.6 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow 575 19.7 Surface Micromachining Basics 579 19.8 Surface Micromachining Process Flow 583 19.9 MEMS Actuators 586 19.10 High Aspect Ratio Microsystems Technology (HARMST) 591 19.11?Microfluidics 19.12 Summary 593 Problems 593 References 595 Chapter 20 Integrated Circuit Manufacturing 599 20.1 Yield Prediction and Yield Tracking 600 20.2 Particle Control 605 20.3 Statistical Process Control 607 20.4 Full Factorial Experiments and ANOVA 609 20.5 Design of Experiments 612 20.6 Computer-integrated Manufacturing 615 20.7 Summary 617 Problems 618 References 618 Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols 620 Appendix II. Properties of Selected Semiconductor Materials 626 Appendix III. Physical Constants 627 Appendix IV. Conversion Factors 629 Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function 632 Appendix VI. F Values 636 Index 639

About the Author :
Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Minnesota, Distinguished Professor of the Institute of Technology, Director of the Nanofabrication Center, and Director of the Center for Nanostructure Applications. He has extensive experience in both academia and industry in microelectronic processing. His current research interests include the application of semiconductor nanoparticles for high performance electronic and optoelectronic devices, advanced materials, novel sensors and transistor structures, and various applications of MEMS.